Boundary Struggles Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Kari Steen-Johnsen and Kjersti Thorbjørnsrud (Eds.) Boundary Struggles Contestations of Free Speech in the Norwegian Public Sphere © Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Kari Steen-Johnsen and Kjersti Thorbjørnsrud (Eds.), 2017 This work is protected under the provisions of the Norwegian Copyright Act (Act No. 2 of May 12, 1961, relating to Copyright in Literary, Scientific and Artistic Works) and published Open Access under the terms of a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). This license allows third parties to freely copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format as well as remix, transform or build upon the material for any purpose, including commercial purposes, provided the work is properly attributed to the author(s), including a link to the license, and any changes that may have been made are thoroughly indicated. 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Cover Design: Cappelen Damm Cover Illustration: Oda Sofie Granholt Cappelen Damm Akademisk/NOASP [email protected] Contents Preface and acknowledgments ...........................................................11 Chapter 1 Boundary-making in the public sphere: Contestations of free speech ............................................................. 13 Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Kari Steen-Johnsen, and Kjersti Thorbjørnsrud Introduction .........................................................................................................13 Conceptualizing free speech ...........................................................................18 A sociological perspective on boundaries of free speech ....................... 22 The Norwegian context ................................................................................... 27 An overview of the book ..................................................................................34 References ...........................................................................................................39 Chapter 2 Silenced by hate? Hate speech as a social boundary to free speech .................................................................... 45 Audun Fladmoe, and Marjan Nadim Introduction ........................................................................................................46 What is hate speech? .......................................................................................48 Targets of hate speech ......................................................................................51 Hate speech as a silencing mechanism ....................................................... 53 Data and method ............................................................................................... 55 Results .................................................................................................................. 57 Discussion and conclusion..............................................................................70 References ........................................................................................................... 73 Chapter 3 Willingness to discuss the publishing of religious cartoons. Spiral of silence in the private and public spheres ...........77 Audun Fladmoe, and Kari Steen-Johnsen Introduction ........................................................................................................78 Spiral of silence and the opinion climate: our approach ..........................81 The case: Publishing of religious cartoons ..................................................85 5 contents Data and variables ............................................................................................89 Who plays a role when deciding whether to discuss the publishing of religious cartoons? ..................................................................96 Discussion and conclusion............................................................................104 References ......................................................................................................... 107 Chapter 4 Perceptions of journalistic bias: Party preferences, media trust and attitudes towards immigration .............................109 Hallvard Moe, Kjersti Thorbjørnsrud, and Audun Fladmoe Introduction .......................................................................................................110 Freedom of information and perceptions of journalistic bias as a dimension of freedom of speech ......................................................... 112 Norway: A ‘critical case’ media system, with a partisan history .......... 117 Data and method: combining quantitative and qualitative analyses ........................................................................................ 120 Results: Perceptions of journalistic bias .....................................................122 Discussion and conclusion............................................................................. 131 References ......................................................................................................... 134 Chapter 5 Editorial perspectives on the public debate on immigration .................................................................................139 Karoline Andrea Ihlebæk and Ingrid Endresen Thorseth Introduction ......................................................................................................140 Theoretical perspectives on gatekeeping ................................................... 141 Method .............................................................................................................. 146 Managing the debate in a fragmented public sphere ............................148 Diversity and deviance .................................................................................... 151 Pushing and protecting boundaries .............................................................157 References ......................................................................................................... 158 Chapter 6 Debating freedom of expression in Norwegian media: Critical moments, positions and arguments .......................165 Terje Colbjørnsen Introduction ...................................................................................................... 166 Critical moments and framing ..................................................................... 168 Data material and method ............................................................................. 171 The peaks and valleys of freedom of expression coverage ....................173 Positions and arguments in the freedom of expression debates ........ 178 6 contents Concluding remarks ........................................................................................ 189 References .......................................................................................................... 191 Chapter 7 Boundaries of free speech in the political field ...........195 Arnfinn H. Midtbøen Introduction ...................................................................................................... 196 Why youth politicians? .................................................................................. 198 Boundaries at work in the political field .................................................... 199 Data, method and ethics .............................................................................. 202 Markers of difference .................................................................................... 205 ‘Cultures of expression’: The significance of party cultures ..................213 Implications for free speech legislation and democracy ....................... 219 Conclusion ........................................................................................................222 References .........................................................................................................225 Chapter 8 Ascribed representation: Ethnic and religious minorities in the mediated public sphere ....................................... 229 Marjan Nadim Introduction ..................................................................................................... 230 Minorities in the mediated public sphere .................................................232 Ascribed identities and ascribed representation ....................................233 About the study ...............................................................................................236 Ascribed identities as part of the game ....................................................238 Ascribed representation as a barrier for participation ...........................241 Strategies to deal with ascribed representation ......................................247 The legitimacy to represent ......................................................................... 250 Discussion and conclusion............................................................................252