Medicina Historica 2017; Vol. 1, N. 2: 65-76 © Mattioli 1885 Original article: history of medicine The meaning of Madness in ancient Greek culture from Homer to Hippocrates and Plato Mario Augusto Maieron Ast, Insubria, Varese, Italy Abstract. The period of time from the Greek Middle Ages to that which has been defined as the Greek Enlightenment of the fifth century, to which both Hippocrates and Plato belong, already encompasses, as far as the meaning of madness is concerned, both the irrational aspects expressed in a variety of ways by the culture of that society, and from a general point of view, the assumptions and rational conclusions reached by today’s neuroscience and philosophy of mind. Regarding the irrational aspects, their attribution to the sacred and their narration in myths was the first of the solutions adopted, later evolving, as far as beliefs, evaluations, judgements, prejudices and behaviours were concerned, into a subsequent division between the sacred and the magical that still persists even today, with a distinction between positive madness which is that of the saints and clairvoyants and negative madness attributed instead to demons or evil. Regarding the rational aspects in the interpretation of madness, common to both yesterday and today, it is the reference to the more general problem of the mind (soul) – body relationship with dualism and monism that still has valid supporters. The examples quoted are texts from Homer’s Iliad and the Odyssey, Hippocrates’s On The Sacred Disease and Plato’s Phaedrus, Ion and Timaeus. Key words: Folly or Madness, Homer, Hippocrates, Plato The term madness in its present-day meaning, al- coherence, because it will only be a few centuries later, though in many aspects generic and vague, is alien to with Plato that the psyche is to become the soul, and the Greek culture of which Homer is the most impor- Hippocratic Naturalism will give the brain as a genetic tant representative. reference for them. The term mania, when expressed, does in fact re- The psyche was, initially, only the breath, that fer more to the irrational rather than the pathological breath of life that leaves man’s body when he dies and and has an extremely wide connotation. It includes goes to Hades, the kingdom of darkness and the dead passionate manifestations of feelings and emotions, and there was insufficient knowledge of that which we disturbances of the conscience, different modalities of today consider to be mental functions. perception and thought, behaviours sustained or im- The seat of sentiments, emotions, passions and posed from an exterior source, and projection mecha- behavioural control (the thymòs and the fhrén) was nisms of the interpretation of reality. considered to be the retrosternal, the heart and dia- Classifying them as pathological, however, is phragm, while the seat of mental representation (the unthinkable because in order to understand them we nòos) was the head. must have as reference pre-rational or even irrational In this archaic thought, therefore, no contrapo- thinking in that very culture that has, as its character- sition exists for the understanding of the manifesta- istic, the interpretation of reality with myths. tions referred to, between the rational and irrational, Furthermore, these manifestations lack the ref- reality and unreality, neither between normality and erence to a centre that unifies them and gives them abnormality. As was stated by Calasso, and noted by 66 M. A. Maieron Enzo Novara (1, 2) «Homer ignores madness (as we The rational and irrational aspects of thinking and know it) simply because it is everywhere,» ..in explo- the realistic and unreal aspects in normal and patho- sions of fury, in the hallucinatory apparitions of divine logical mental activity, were in fact topics of considera- figures, in inner voices, split personalities, and, affirms tion for Eugène Minkowski, phenomenological psy- Novara that these were phenomena quite common in chiatrist of the last century, that valorises unreality and the psychological experience of the listener and reader irrationality, attributing them to a role that is just as of Homeric poems, therefore the description of an al- important as that of reality and rationality for a good most physical proximity of the divinity to the charac- psychic equilibrium.(5) ters narrated was anything but unnatural. They were These are also topics held dearly by Thomas Szaz phenomena that we, today, ascribe to the vast noso- and Franco Basaglia. According to Szaz «mental ill- graphical field of schizophrenia, but that, according ness is myth» (6) and irrationality, even in psychotic to Dodds, in the Greek world were absolutely com- forms is none other than a normality that has been de- monplace, since they were linked to a psychic structure nied the right of expression. completely different to ours, that is to say, a specific Likewise Basaglia in his Conferenze Brasiliane predisposition of the primitive or archaic mind to hal- (Brazilians conferences): «I said that I do not know what lucinations, to give reality to images produced by the madness is. It can be all or nothing. It’s a human con- brain, projecting them in fact onto divine figures (3). dition. Madness exists in all of us and is present the In which century the Homeric works or part of same as reason» (7). them should be placed, remains an unanswered ques- However, while, according to Basaglia, “dominant tion. The hypothetical timeframe for an oral phase of reason” does not include madness and marginalizes it, various chapters or part of them, presented separately, trying to eliminate it, in myth and ancient cultures, is placed in the so-called Greek Medieval, between the such as that expressed by Homer, it is, instead, pre- XII and IX Century B.C. cisely irrationality or pre-rationality that are dominant. The first complete edition of the Iliad and the Another modern theme, in a very rational area Odyssey in written form, according to Cicerone, dates which had already become relevant in Greece in the back to the VI Century and are by Pisistratus (4). V Century, is that of monism or dualism in the mind Without, however, entering into the Homeric – body relationship with a theoretical development, in question, what is important to note is that, in the fol- the naturalist context, well expressed by Hippocrates, lowing centuries, while popular tradition maintains who had a cultural background in naturalism and the conceptual definition described, of a madness not empiricism from the Ionic School of Mileto, Talete, separated from normality as an expression of pre-ra- Anassimandro and Anassimene, and in the philosoph- tional and rational aspects of the same, in the philo- ic context by Plato with the elaboration of concepts al- sophical and naturalistic setting the meaning gradually ready in part present in Orphic-Pythagorean thought. modifies with formulations that are increasingly more All psychic activities are thus traced back to a uni- rational than those in Plato or Hippocrates, two of the ty, the psyche, that gives them coherence that, on the most important exponents of that which has been de- one hand, with Hippocrates, valorises as a reference fined as the Greek Enlightenment of the V Century, not only the normal but also the pathological aspects finding completion, clarity and consistency. of the brain, while in Plato, by means of a redefini- Considerations on the evolution of the meaning tion of its meaning, it becomes an immortal soul, the of this term during the period indicated, should not very essence of man, his inner self, in whose passions become a linguistic research but rather a comparison, may also nestle the possibility of madness. Monism to underline the modernity, between the themes and and dualism are also present day terms. After the secu- solutions proposed in that distant past and their simi- lar domination of Cartesian dualism that proposes in larity to the content of existing debates and conclu- rational and philosophical terms, with Neo-Platonic sions reached today by philosophy of the mind and solutions, a problem that had for centuries remained neurosciences. the competence of theology, it was above all during The meaning of Madness in ancien Greek culture from Homer to Hippocrates and Plato 67 the second half of the twentieth century that monistic Connectionism is the result of the work done by hypothesis reappeared and regained momentum with a group of researchers from MIT during the eighties, a re-elaboration, in neopositivism, of psychophysical coordinated by the psychologists D.E. Rumelhart (9) materialism, with a deeper scientific knowledge of the and J.L. McClelland (10). brain and its mental activities, both normal and patho- After this somewhat long introduction I’ll go back logical, thanks to the development of neurosciences to the proposed theme remembering that Erasmus had and cybernetics. already placed madness in those ancient Greek myths, The greatest present day expression of dualism is when speaking about his own lineage and homeland: the interactionist dualism or trialism by Popper and Ec- «And because it is not alike known to all from cles (8), who having exorcised the references to the Car- what stock I am sprung, with the Muses’ good leave tesian substances elaborate conceptualizations, which I’ll do my endeavour to satisfy you. But yet neither have as reference evolutionism and the neo emergent- the first Chaos, Orcus, Saturn, or Japhet, nor any of ism and they hypothesize the mind – body relationship those threadbare, musty gods were my father, but Plu- as emerging processes and phenomena defined “almost tus, Riches; that only he, that is, in spite of Hesiod, substances”, with the causal agents being the physical Homer, nay and Jupiter himself, divum pater atque world, the mental world and the cultural world.