1 Contents HENRY F CLEERE 1 Catalogue raisonnée of sites 2 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 South-eastern counties 3 1.3 South-western counties 6 THE IRON INDUSTRY OF ROMAN BRITAIN 1.4 Western counties 8 1.5 West Midlands 11 1.6 East Midlands 12 1.7 South Midlands 14 1.8 East Anglia 15 1.9 Northern counties 16 © Henry F Cleere 1981 1.10 Wales (excluding Monmouthshire) 17 1.11 Scotland 20 2 Geographical distribution of the industry 22 2.1 Iron ores in Britain 22 2.1.a Types of iron ore 22 2.1.b Iron ore deposits in Britain 23 Abstract 2.2 Distribution of sites 25 2.3 The Weald 25 2.4 The Forest of Dean 30 The thesis surveys the evidence for iron smelting and iron working in Roman Britain, 2.5 The Jurassic Ridge (Oxfordshire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire) 32 principally from archaeological sources. It begins with a catalogue raisonnée of sites, 2.6 Other areas 34 classifi ed geographically into ten regions, and then analyses the distribution of these sites, in relation to the iron-ore deposits in Britain known to have been worked during 2.6.a South-western Britain 34 the Roman period. The organization of the industry is then discussed, against the 2.6.b Wales 34 background of what is known of Roman Imperial minerals policy and administration, 2.6.c Northern Britain 34 and the known sites are classifi ed into fi ve main types. 3 Organization of the industry 36 A section on the technology of Roman ironmaking deals with the basic chemistry 3.1 Imperial minerals policy and administration 36 of bloomery ironmaking, ore mining and treatment, charcoal burning, furnaces types 3.2 The organization of the iron industry in Roman Britain 39 and smelting, and steel production. 3.2.a Introduction 39 An historical outline of the industry covers the spread of ironmaking technology 3.2.b Imperial estates 39 into Britain, the pre-Roman iron industry in Britain, and the chronological development of the Roman industry. The fi nal section deals with the economic basis 3.3 Types of site 42 of the industry, with consideration of iron production and consumption data, markets, 3.3.a Major industrial settlements 42 the export of iron from Roman Britain, and the manning requirements of the industry. 3.3.b Minor industrial settlements 43 Published papers on experimental smelting in a reconstructed furnace of Roman 3.3.c Military ironmaking sites 43 type, the classifi cation of bloomery furnaces, the Roman iron industry of the Weald, 3.3.d Urban ironmaking sites 44 and some operating parameters for Roman ironworks appear as appendices. 3.3.e Ironmaking on villas 44 Margin numbering in red refers to the original page numbers of the thesis 2 5 4 The technology of Roman ironmaking 46 1 Catalogue Raisonnée of Sites 6 4.1 The basic chemistry of bloomery ironmaking 46 4.1.a Theory of the reduction of iron ore 46 4.1.b Practical application of iron-ore reduction and its problems 47 1.1 Introduction 4.1.c The reduction chamber 50 4.2 Ore mining and treatment 51 For the purposes of this study, the Roman province of Britannia has been divided for 4.2.a Mining technology 51 convenience into ten regions. These are arbitrary divisions, based for the most part 4.2.b Ore mining tools and practices 53 on modern administrative boundaries: the analysis of the distribution of these sites is 4.2.c Ore preparation 54 contained in Chapter 2. The ten regions are as follows: 4.3 Charcoal burning 57 1 South-eastern counties (Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire) 4.4 Furnace types and smelting 58 2 South-western counties (Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Somerset) 4.4.a Furnace types 58 3 Western counties (Wiltshire, Gloucestershire, Herefordshire, Monmouthshire) 4.4.b The smelting process 60 4 West Midlands (Cheshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire) 4.5 Production of steel 64 5 East Midlands (Derbyshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Nottingham hire) 5 Historical outline 67 6 South Midlands (Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, 5.1 Spread of ironmaking technology into Britain 67 Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire) 5.2 The pre-Roman iron industry in Britain 68 7 East Anglia (Cambridgeshire, Essex, Huntingdonshire, Norfolk, Rutland, 5.3 The development of the Roman iron industry 69 Suffolk) 6 The economics of the industry 71 8 Northern counties (Cumberland, Durham, Lancashire, Westmorland, Yorkshire) 6.1 Iron production and consumption 71 9 Wales (excluding Monmouthshire) 6.1.a Production 71 10 Scotland 6.1.b Consumption 74 6.2 Markets 75 The catalogue gives details of sites in these groups. Within each group, sites are 6.3 Export of iron from Roman Britain 76 listed in alphabetical order according to the name of the site that has produced 6.4 Manning 77 relevant fi nds. Each entry contains the following information, arranged as shown: 7 Bibliography SITE NAME, Parish, County National Grid Reference Appendix A ‘Ironmaking in a Roman furnace’, Britannia, 2 (1971), 203-17 84 Summary account of fi nds Appendix B ‘The classifi cation of early iron-smelting furnaces’, Date: type of site Antiq J, 52 (1972), 8-23 94 Bibliographical references Appendix C ‘The Roman iron industry of the Weald and its connexions with the Classis Britannica’, Archaeol J, 131 (1974), 171-99 102 Appendix D ‘Some operating parameters for Roman ironworks’, Inst Archaeol Bull, 13 (1976), 233-46 118 6 7 Margin numbering in red refers to the original page numbers of the thesis 3 1.2 South-eastern counties BYNES FARM, Crowhurst, Sussex TQ 752111 Excavated 1949: slag heap, containing single and double tuyeres, much pottery. BARDOWN, Ticehurst, Sussex TQ 663293 Possible satellite of Crowhurst Park. Excavated 1960-68 (Cleere 1970): site covering c.3ha, divided into residential I-II AD: BLOOMERY (military) (barrack block) and working areas. Large slag bank. Ore-roasting furnaces, forging Cleere 1974, 192-3 hearths, charcoal hearth. Stamped tiles of Classis Britannica II-III AD: BLOOMERY (military) CASTLE HILL, Rotherfi eld, Sussex TQ 560280 Straker 1931, 28, 196 Extensive slag deposit. Radiocarbon date of mid 1st century AD. Cleere 1970 I AD: BLOOMERY (military) Cleere 1974, 190-1 (gives earlier references)* Cleere 1974, 193 BEAUPORT PARK, Battle, Sussex TQ 786140 CHICHESTER, Sussex Very large site (c.10ha?). Military-type bath-house excavated 1970-72. Massive slag Evidence of iron working and possible melting in industrial quarter of civitas capital. bank removed in 19th century for road metalling. Stamped tiles of Classis Britannica III-IV AD: FORGE (civil) (I)II-III AD: BLOOMERY (military) K M E Murray & B W Cunliffe, Sussex Archaeol Collect 100 (1962), 93-110 Straker 1931, 330-7 Cleere 1974, 191-2 CHILGROVE, Sussex Iron working is attested throughout the life of this settlement complex, with possible BRENLEY CORNER, Kent TR 043597 smelting in the fi nal phase. Excavated 1962-73. Probable bloomery hearths (ore from Woolwich Beds). Possible II-IV AD: FORGE/BLOOMERY (civil) religious site in association. Small-scale activity. A Down, Chichester Excavations 4 (1979) 8 I-IV AD: BLOOMERY (civil) 9 Archaeol Excav 1972, 56-7; 1973, 47-8 CHITCOMBE, Brede, Sussex TQ 814211 Large site, described by Rock as comparable with Beauport Park. Pottery fi nds BROADFIELDS, Crawley, Sussex TQ 258353 suggest similar date range. Remains of masonry still visible. Finds of tile suggest Major industrial settlement – rescue excavations 1964-73. Nearly 40 smelting existence of substantial buildings. 7 furnaces, ore roasting, slag dumps, etc. Domestic buildings of non-military type. II-III AD: BLOOMERY (military) 8 (I BC?)I-II/III AD: BLOOMERY (civil) Cleere 1974, 193 Cleere 1974, 192 J Rock, Sussex Archaeol Collect 29 (1879), 175-80 BROOK HOUSE, Rotherfi eld, Sussex TQ 506273 COALPIT WOOD, Ticehurst, Sussex TQ 652285 Excavation in large slag heap produced sherds of Romano-British pottery. Satellite of Bardown site, 1 mile to south-west and connected by slag-metalled track, ?II/III AD: BLOOMERY (civil) lined with ore pits. Small slag deposit on side of small gill. Cleere 1974, 192 III AD: BLOOMERY (military) Cleere 1974, 193 * Only the reference to Cleere 1974 is given for most of the Wealden sites: full bibliographical references and fuller descriptions are given for each site listed in the catalogue attached to that paper, which forms Appendix C to this thesis. Margin numbering in red refers to the original page numbers of the thesis 4 CROWHURST PARK, Crowhurst, Sussex TQ 769136 HOLBEANWOOD, Ticehurst, Sussex TQ 663305 Large bloomery (cp Beauport Park, Chitcombe), excavated 1936. Slag bank Excavation revealed two groups of six shaft furnaces: at least one further group not produced furnace debris, single and double tuyeres, pre-Roman and Romano-British excavated. No buildings, apart from shelters over furnaces. Linked with Bardown by pottery. Minepits along both sides of valley. slag-metalled road, lined with ore pits. I BC, I-II AD: BLOOMERY (military) III AD: BLOOMERY (military) E Straker and B H Lucas, Sussex Archaeol Collect 79 (1938), 224-9 Cleere 1974, 195 10 Cleere 1974, 193 11 WIRG, Wealden Iron 1st series, IX (1976), 3-4 HOWBOURNE FARM, Hadlow Down, Sussex TQ 516249 Bloomery slag and 2nd century pottery found in association with mortared stone wall. DOOZES FARM, Wadhurst, Sussex TQ 625273 II AD: BLOOMERY (civil) Discovered during laying of gas pipeline 1969-70. Pit containing tap slag, cinder, and Cleere 1974, 195 furnace debris, with two sherds of Romano-British coarse ware (East Sussex ware). Possible satellite of Bardown. ICKLESHAM, Sussex TQ 8615 ?III AD: BLOOMERY (military) Two small bloomeries, with six shaft furnaces and much slag.