The History of Food Irradiation INTRODUCTION HISTORY OF sources became available, with the APPLICATIONS RESEARCH emergence of nuclear reactors. With this, Food irradiation is a technology The use of radiation in food processing food irradiation became a technically and is by no means new. Meats, fish, fruits commercially feasible process and a more that can be safely used to reduce and vegetables have been preserved concerted research into the safety and for centuries by the sun’s energy. Lately, applications started to take place. food losses due to deterioration infrared and microwave radiation has been added to the list of radiant energies The modern era of food irradiation and to control contamination in food processing. applications research began when the United States Atomic Energy Commission causing illness and death. The idea of using ionizing radiation in food (USAEC) initiated a coordinated research preservation almost immediately followed program in the use of ionizing radiation Henri Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity for food preservation in 1950 and began Proven as wholesome and toxicologically in 1895. The suggestion to use ionizing to provide spent fuel rods from nuclear safe over many years, global energy to destroy pathogenic and spoilage reactors. Most of these experiments took commercialization of the process lags in microorganisms in food was published in place at the National Laboratory in spite of the general knowledge that it can a German medical journal, the same year. Lemont, Illinois. Already in the early stages offer all these benefits while eliminating In the early 1900’s, patents were issued in of this process, the limitation of spent the need for the use of many potentially the United States and the United Kingdom fuel rods became increasingly apparent, harmful chemicals. In part, the industry describing the use of ionizing radiation especially with regard to exact dosimetry. and the scientific community have to destroy microorganisms in food. Cobalt-60 (Co-60), a deliberately produced not been successful in promoting the Interestingly, they felt the advantage of radioisotope was found considerably more technology and in educating the public. this technique was that the improvements suitable for this purpose. Cobalt-60 Noteworthy is the progress that has been could be made without using any chemical sources were made available by the made since the beginning in the early additives - a concept which is even more USAEC to several U.S. academic 1900’s in the areas of applications valid today. Back then, the technology was institutions, such as the Massachusetts research, regulatory developments, not commercially viable as the only known Institute of Technology (MIT), University and international harmonization, ionizing radiation source was radium and of California at Davis, University of as well as commercial applications. it was not easily available. Washington at Seattle and University of Florida at Gainesville, in the early Other studies and patents followed. There 1960’s. Afterwards, the Marine Products are reports of scientists using X-rays to kill Development Irradiator, with 235 kCi insects, eggs and larvae in tobacco leaves (kilocuries) of Co-60 was built by the and to eliminate Trichinosis parasites National Marine Fisheries Services at found in pork. Once again, the commercial Gloucester, Massachusetts, followed by viability of the process was precluded by a Grain Products Irradiator with 35 kCi the high cost and difficulties in acquiring of Co-60 at the USDA’s Entomological ionizing radiation sources. In recent Research Centre in Savannah, Georgia. decades, more practical ionizing radiation THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION The U.S. Armed Forces played an important (JECFI) convened meetings in 1970, 1976 meeting convened by the UN agencies FAO, role in the early years of food irradiation and 1980. At the 1980 meeting, the JECFI IAEA and WHO. The three UN agencies research. The U.S. Army Natick Laboratories decisively stated: and 19 founding member governments’ at Natick, Massachusetts acquired representatives signed a declaration, 1. “The Committee concluded that the a 1.3 MCi (megacurie) cobalt source which established the ICGFI in 1984. irradiation of any food commodity up and an 18 kW (kilowatt) electron linear to an overall average dose of 10 kGy accelerator. Food irradiation research The major objective of ICGFI is to evaluate presents no toxicological hazard; hence, commenced in early 1950’s. After 1960, global developments and to provide toxicological testing of foods so treated the U.S. Army concentrated on high dose a focal point of advice on the application is no longer required.” applications, to develop sterile meat of food irradiation to member states. The products, to substitute for canned or 2. “The Committee considered that the highest priority is assigned to its program frozen military rations. The U.S. Army irradiation of food up to an overall of work to promote public information continues to be an active member average dose of 10 kGy introduces no on food irradiation, discussing the process of the global community of researchers special nutritional or microbiological in an objective manner. It provides in the field of food irradiation. problems…” publications on the safety, the effectiveness and commercialization of the process, Reports of successful experiments in the Based on JECFI findings, the World Health legislative aspects and control of irradiation United States stimulated similar efforts Organization published a document titled facilities and also organizes training courses in other countries. Shortly, national “Wholesomeness of Irradiated Foods “, in for plant technical personnel, food research programs were underway in Geneva, in 1981. The document concluded inspectors, journalists and others. ICGFI Belgium, Canada, France, The Netherlands, that no further toxicological or nutritional membership has grown to 44 member Poland, Russia, Germany and United research is needed on foods irradiated states in 1995. Kingdom. However, health authorities up to an overall dose of 10 kGy. in these countries still hesitated to grant HISTORY OF REGULATORY permissions to market irradiated foods. Nevertheless, global research in food DEVELOPMENTS irradiation continues. To date, food Hot debates about the safety of irradiated The first country to grant a clearance for irradiation has been studied more than any foods for human consumption were human consumption of irradiated foods other food process. All evidence gathered recognized as the major obstacle to was the former Soviet Union. In March from almost a century of scientific and commercialization of the process. As 1958, the former Soviet government technical research leads to the conclusion a result of this recognition, under the granted a clearance to irradiate potatoes that food irradiation is a safe, beneficial sponsorship of the International Atomic to inhibit sprouting and a year later, and practical process. Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna and the a clearance was given for grain to be Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) irradiated for insect infestation. Canada, INTERNATIONAL CONSULTATIVE in Rome, a group of 19 countries – which in those days, was not lagging behind GROUP ON FOOD IRRADIATION promptly grew to 24 – formed the and granted a clearance in 1960 for sprout International Project on Food Irradiation When the International Project on inhibition in potatoes at a maximum dose (IFIP), in 1970, with headquarters in Food Irradiation (IFIP) had successfully of 10 kilorad (kRad) or 0.1 kilogray (kGy). Karlsruhe, Germany. The World Health completed its task of examining the This dose was increased in 1963 to Organization (WHO) in Geneva was wholesomeness of foods irradiated up 15 kRad (0.15 kGy). In 1965, a clearance associated with the project in an advisory to the dose of 10 kGy and was terminated to irradiate onions up to the same dose capacity. Resources of the member in 1982, the governments of participating was added to the list. The first clearance countries were pooled to carry out nations and the international agencies to irradiate foods in the USA was granted chemical analyses and animal feeding FAO/IAEA/WHO felt that the international by the FDA in 1963, as a result of a petition studies on a wide range of irradiated platform provided by IFIP since 1970 was to “Process Wheat and Wheat Products foods, such as meat, fish, fruit, spices, very useful and should be renewed. The for the Control of Insect Infestation”. wheat and rice. The Joint FAO/IAEA/WHO International Consultative Group on Food Expert Committee on Food Irradiation Irradiation (ICGFI) was conceived at a 1983 2 THE HISTORY OF FOOD IRRADIATION The 1980 JECFI statement on INTERNATIONAL APPROVALS The United Nation’s Codex Alimentarius wholesomeness and microbiological To date, clearances are in place in Commission, after receiving the and toxicological safety of irradiated foods the USA for spices and dry aromatic recommendations of the Joint FAO/IAEA/ and the 1981 WHO publication of the ingredients, fresh fruits and vegetables WHO Expert Committee, referred the “Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food” (“fresh foods”), pork, poultry, red meats, labeling issue to its Committee on brochure prompted the publication of shell eggs and food enzymes. Canadian Labeling. This committee, which meets another UN sponsored document on food legislation has remained unchanged since every 2 years, usually in Ottawa, Canada, irradiation. The Codex Alimentarius,