Reconstructing Maritime Networks in the Bronze and Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean: A Diachronic Analysis of Canaanite and Phoenician Maritime Transport Containers by Robert Martin A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Copyright by Robert Martin 2021 ii Reconstructing Maritime Networks in the Bronze and Iron Age Eastern Mediterranean: A Diachronic Analysis of Canaanite and Phoenician Maritime Transport Containers Robert Martin Doctor of Philosophy Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto 2021 Abstract This thesis provides a diachronic overview of the evolution of Canaanite and Phoenician Maritime Transport Containers (MTCs) produced in the Levant from the Early Bronze Age (EBA) II/III to the terminal Iron Age (IA) II. The focus is on the morphological development of these ceramics and how this relates to maritime function, standardization for international markets and technological innovation. Through an examination of the spatial distribution and provenance of these ceramics, as well as EBA precursor and Iron Age successors, this study will elucidate their essential relationship with eastern Mediterranean maritime (and terrestrial) exchange networks. Their morphological development reflects growing specialization as an MTC and the transport of bulk liquid staples like oils, resins, and wine, characteristic of production in the Levant. Littoral patterns are apparent, with exemplar MTCs common to coastal centres, but with evidence for dendritic patterns of exchange connected to hinterland production. This study reveals expansions and contractions in long-distance trade during the Bronze and Iron Ages, with some continuity in patterns stemming from coastal emporia, which interfaced with other economic centres via long-distance maritime activities. iii A basic typological framework for the development of Levantine MTCs is presented, covering a period of nearly two millennia, but revealing appreciable continuity. With the growth of incipient EBA long-distance maritime routes, so too occurred the innovation of new ceramic technologies in the form of MTC prototypes (MTC #1), further refined in the Canaanite Jars (MTC #2) of the Middle Bronze Age (MBA), and with the expansion of international networks in the Late Bronze Age (LBA) IIB, producing what may be the earliest purpose-built MTCs (MTC #3). Despite the disappearance of this distinctive, standardized type with the transition to the Iron Age, likely due to contraction in long-distance trade, there is continuity in the production of this carinated jar tradition along the Phoenician coast (MTC #4). The Phoenician MTCs of the Iron I-II relate to similar processes, with evidence that international trade continues during the Iron I (particularly with Egypt and Cyprus), and that it proliferates during the Iron II when MTC #5 is similarly standardized for international markets and provides evidence for deposition in contemporary shipwrecks. These Phoenician MTCs display further continuity with amphorae produced into the later Persian, Classical, and Roman periods. iv Acknowledgments For my mother, Jody. v Table of Contents Contents Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .............................................................................................................................v List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................x List of Plates .................................................................................................................................. xi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii List of Appendices .........................................................................................................................xv Chapter 1 Reconstructing Ancient Maritime Networks ............................................................1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................1 1.2 Maritime Transport Container Classification and Thesis .............................................4 1.3 Data Types ..........................................................................................................................6 1.3.1 Chronological Scope ..............................................................................................8 1.3.2 Geographical Scope ...............................................................................................9 1.4 History of the Problem: MTC Classification / Ceramic Typologies ...........................11 1.5 Summary of Chapters......................................................................................................15 Levantine MTCs: A History of Research and Literature Review ......................................16 2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................16 2.2 History of Research and Early Studies of Levantine MTCs ........................................17 2.3 The Bronze Age ................................................................................................................21 2.4 The Iron Age .....................................................................................................................25 2.5 Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................................33 Creating a Levantine MTC Typology ...................................................................................34 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................34 3.2 Maritime Transport Container Classification ..............................................................36 vi 3.2.1 MTC #1: Early Bronze Age Combed Ware Jars (Flat-Based) (Figure 2: EBA; Figure 3; Appendix I: Pl. I) .........................................................37 3.2.2 MTC #2: Middle Bronze Age ‘Canaanite Jars’ (Ovoid) (Figure 2: MBA; Figure 6; Appendix I: Pl. 2) .......................................................42 3.2.3 Late Bronze Age ‘Canaanite Jars’ .....................................................................48 3.2.4 LBA: Pedrazzi Type 4 (Bulbous) (Figure 2: LBA:A/IA:A/ Appendix I: Pl. 10) ........................................................49 3.2.5 MTC #3: LBA, Pedrazzi Type 5.4 (Conical / Carinated) (Figures 11; 26: A-C / Appendix I: Pls. 4-6) .........................................................50 3.2.6 MTC #4: Iron I, Pedrazzi Type 5.2 (Conical / Carinated) (Figures 15; 22:C-C2 / Appendix I: Pl. 9) .............................................................56 3.2.7 Iron I: Type 5.5 (Conical / Carinated) (Figures 18; 22: B-B1 / Appendix I: Pl. 11) ..........................................................59 3.2.8 Iron I: Type 5.7 (Conical / Carinated - Transitional Type?) (Figures 20; 22: E; Appendix I: Pl. 12)..................................................................62 3.2.9 Iron I: Type 16 (Ovoid / Bulbous) (Figures 21; 22: D1/Appendix I: Pl. 14) ................................................................63 3.2.10 MTC #5: Iron Age II, Aznar Type 9.B1 (Cylindrical / Conical) (Figures 23; 29 / Appendix I: Pls. 16 and 21) ........................................................65 3.2.11 MTC #6: Iron Age II, Aznar Type 9.B2 (Cylindrical/ Conical / Pyriform / Parabolic) (Figures 24; 29 / Appendix I: Pls. 17 and 21) .....................................67 3.2.12 Maritime Transport Container Typology .........................................................69 3.3 Summary and Conclusions .............................................................................................71 Levantine MTCs in the Archaeological Record ...................................................................76 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................76 4.2 Early Bronze Age ‘Combed Ware’ Jars (MTC #1) ......................................................76 4.3 Middle Bronze Age ‘Canaanite Jars’ (MTC #2) ...........................................................83 4.4 Late Bronze Age ‘Canaanite Jars’ (Pedrazzi Type 4, but especially MTC #3 / Pedrazzi Type 5.4) ...................................87 4.5 Iron Age I: Phoenician Maritime Transport Containers (MTC #4 / Pedrazzi Type 5.2) .........................................................................................96 vii 4.6 Iron Age II: Phoenician Maritime Transport Containers (MTC #5-6 / Aznar Type 9.B1-9.B2) ..............................................................................99 4.7 Summary and Conclusions ...........................................................................................102 Spatial Distribution of MTC Types .....................................................................................106 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................106 5.2 Methodology ...................................................................................................................106