A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details The Potential of Video Games for Exploring Deconstructionist History Manuel Alejandro Cruz Martínez Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex July 2019 2 Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own research. This thesis has not been and will not be submitted in whole or in part to another University for the award of any other degree. Manuel Alejandro Cruz Martínez 3 Abstract This thesis examines the potential of historical video games for exploring deconstructionist history. Historical video games have become one of the most popular and accessible forms of historical narratives in the 21st century, forming a key part of public engagement with history. This popularity has also placed these games under growing scrutiny, including calls for critically analysing their role in the construction and representation of historical narratives and epistemologies. For example, addressing topics like the emphasis on military history, the dominance of western perspectives and contexts, or teleological notions of progress. Such studies have become a central focus of historical video game studies, which has developed approaches for exploring how particular forms of historiographical representation and narrative arise and become embedded within historical video games. This thesis develops a unique contribution to these debates by focusing on a deconstructionist approach to history. Defined by historian Alun Munslow (2007), the deconstructionist approach presents history as a constructed narrative and aims to identify discourses behind the process of writing history. In video games, the control that players have over the narrative experience can be described as unintentionally embedding a deconstructionist perspective. Expanding on this argument, this research addressed how formal aspects of the medium exert pressure over epistemology and how historiographical ideas can consciously be shared with players. In contrast with previous approaches to the study of historical video games, this thesis goes beyond formal analysis of existing games, and includes design and reception perspectives. The arrangement of this study drew insights from several interdisciplinary fields, including the digital humanities, design and cultural studies. The result was a research through design methodology which engaged in the design, production, and evaluation of a historical video game prototype. Through the design process, the study set out to identify, implement, and test aspects of the medium that can emphasise a deconstructionist approach and allow players to reflect on their conceptualisation of history. This process involved multiple stages of data gathering and analysis. 4 The results show that perceptions of historical video games are marked by tensions between what is seen as historical and what is seen as fictional or ludic. This thesis proposes a framework to navigate through these tensions, and uses it to develop a video game prototype, Time Historians. The evaluation of this prototype shows that players recognised the deconstructionist approach and openly discussed historiography. The findings indicate the feasibility of intentionally embedding a deconstructionist historiographical approach by relying on core aspects of the medium and navigating through the discourses surrounding it. The main contributions of the study include: a new approach for the analysis of historical video games; methodological reflections on the interdisciplinary combination of video game design and history; a set of epistemological guidelines for the design of historical video games; and new reflections on the role of video games as public history. Finally, this thesis expands on the discussions about historical video games and epistemology, offering a design-based perspective to approach this issue and unveiling further considerations on the potential of this medium. 5 Acknowledgements I would like to express my deepest gratitude to all the people who have supported me to undertake and complete this thesis. First, I would like to thanks to my supervisors Liam Berriman, Kate Howland, and Simon Thompson. I am eternally grateful with you for your constant support, for your guidance, and for believing in me. It has been a privilege and a pleasure to be under your guidance. I am also thankful to Sharon Webb and Paul Coulton for agreeing to examine this thesis and for their beneficial feedback and encouragement. Many thanks to the Sussex Humanities Lab, for funding this work for three years. I extend my thanks to the directors and researchers at the lab for sharing their passion and knowledge with me. My gratitude to the colleagues and lecturers at the School of Education and Social Work, and the School of Engineering and Informatics. Specially, to Rachel Thomson who always rooted for me, Judith Good whose advice I have treasured forever, and to my fellow PhD researchers Nathan and Damien for our therapeutic chats. During this journey I have met incredible people, whose knowledge, advice, and support, has fuelled my work. Thanks to Adam, Sian, Juan, Tara, Fede, Jordi, Chris, Rob, and all the wonderful crowd of historical game researchers that I have got the chance to share with. I also have to thank Mari Cruz, who encouraged me, many years ago, to pursue a PhD. I am particularly grateful with all the people who volunteered their time to participate in this research. And to all the friends and family who tested my workshops and prototypes. Thanks to Edu, Fefi, Marcos, Susana, and Antonio, for also offering me their advice, company, and esteem. Thanks to my parents, my sister, and all my family for their unconditional support, patience, and for allowing me to have a place to call home. And finally, thanks to my partner Almudena, for always being there, pushing me towards the future. 6 Table of Contents Declaration ........................................................................................................................ 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 3 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. 6 List of Figures ................................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 14 1.1 Background to the Study .................................................................................. 14 1.2 Research Question ............................................................................................ 18 1.3 Outline of Thesis .............................................................................................. 20 Chapter 2. Literature Review .......................................................................................... 21 2.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................. 21 2.2 Video Games .................................................................................................... 21 2.2.a Definitions and Approaches ...................................................................... 21 2.2.b Historical Video Games ............................................................................ 25 2.3 Historical Video Game as Deconstructionist History ...................................... 28 2.3.a Historiography and Historical Video Games ............................................ 28 2.3.b Deconstructionist History.......................................................................... 32 2.3.c Deconstructionist History in Historical Video Games .............................. 34 2.4 Historical Video Games as Public History ....................................................... 38 2.4.a Media and History ..................................................................................... 38 2.4.b Reception Studies ...................................................................................... 40 2.4.c Negotiated Meaning .................................................................................. 43 2.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................. 47 Chapter 3. Methodology.................................................................................................. 49 3.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................. 49 7 3.2 General Approaches and Type of Study ........................................................... 49 3.2.a Research Through