Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods in Sociolinguistics VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF LITHUANIAN LANGUAGE Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods in Sociolinguistics STUDY GUIDE A Resource Book for Students Vilma Bijeikienė, Aurelija Tamošiūnaitė Kaunas 2013 Reviewed by Assoc. Prof. Violeta Kalėdaitė and Prof. Dr. Nemira Mačianskienė Approved by the Department of Lithuanian Language of the Faculty of Humanities at Vytautas Magnus University on the 5th of November 2013 (Protocol No. 7-1) Recommended for printing by the Council of the Faculty of Humanities of Vytautas Magnus University on the 7th of November 2013 (Protocol No. 5-2) Publication of the study guide is supported by the European Social Fund (ESF) and the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Project title: “Preparation and imple- mentation of the joint degree international master programme in ‘Sociolinguistics and Multilingualism’” (project No. VP1-2.2-ŠMM-07-K-02-091) ISBN 978-9955-12-989-9 (Print) © Vilma Bijeikienė, Aurelija Tamošiūnaitė, 2013 ISBN 978-609-467-041-1 (Online) © Vytautas Magnus University, 2013 TABLE OF CONTENTS: Introduction ......................................................................7 Chapter 1: Research Methods in Sociolinguistics and Multilingualism: Key Concepts and Paradigms .....9 Chapter 2: Links between Research Design, Method, and Data Collection ..........................20 Chapter 3: Study Design: Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, Case Group, Experimental, Quasi-experimental 31 Chapter 4: Data: Types of Data and Sampling ..................................................44 Chapter 5: Ethical Issues ....................................................................56 Chapter 6: Quantitative Research: Concepts and Definitions. Use of Corpora .......................63 Chapter 7: Questionnaires ..................................................................80 Chapter 8: Sociolinguistic Interview ...........................................................88 Chapter 9: Qualitative Techniques: Observations and Recordings (Audio & Video). Transcription .....100 Chapter 10: Social Network Analysis ...........................................................117 Chapter 11: Conversation Analysis ........................................................... 126 Chapter 12: Speech Act Theory .............................................................. 136 Chapter 13: Interactional Sociolinguistics ......................................................145 Chapter 14: Critical Discourse Analysis ........................................................ 155 Literature ...................................................................... 167 Answer key ..................................................................... 175 5 INTRODUCTION These study guidelines are intended for graduate students taking a course in Quan- titative and Qualitative Research Methods in Sociolinguistics offered at Vytautas Magnus University. The course is part of the program curriculum of the joint-degree master program “Sociolinguistics and Multilingualism” offered in co-operation with Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz (Germany), Stockholm University (Swe- den) and University of Tartu (Estonia). The guidelines focus on two main research paradigms related to sociolinguistic research, namely quantitative analysis (related to the variationist tradition) and quali- tative analysis (related to the ethnographic tradition). The study guide intends to sup- port in-class activities, as well as to serve as a source for independent study. It does not, however, aim to substitute existing materials (textbooks and handbooks devoted to research methods), rather complement them by adding, where relevant, references to sociolinguistic research in the Baltics. As such, this study guide should only be considered as a work in progress. The authors hope to expand it over time, consider- ing students’ comments and suggestions for improvement. The guidelines consist of 14 chapters. Each chapter presents and elaborates on a different aspect of sociolinguistic research (i.e., different research methods). The first five chapters introduce key concepts and definitions related to research in general (research methods, research design, data, ethical issues), while the remaining nine chapters focus on different research methods applied in sociolinguistic research (e.g., participant observation, interviews, statistical analysis, conversation analysis, critical discourse analysis, and other). All chapters follow the same structure. First, students are introduced to key concepts related to the topic. Key concepts are followed by a pre-reading activity and then a discussion of the key issues on the topic. Where relevant, the discussion is supported by examples and case studies. Each chapter con- tains comprehension activities (with answers at the end): some of these activities are intended for independent study, some for in-class activities. Group discussions are strongly encouraged. At the end of the chapter we provide students with a glossary and a list of cited material for further reference. Chapters 1 through 10 were pre- pared by Aurelija Tamošiūnaitė, and Chapters 11 through 14 were prepared by Vilma Bijeikienė. 7 CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND MULTILINGUALISM: KEY CONCEPTS AND PARADIGMS 1.1. Key concepts Dependent variable Empirical research Experimental research Experimental stimuli Field work Hypothesis Independent variable Non-experimental research Observation Qualitative methods Quantitative methods Triangulation 1.2. Pre-reading activity Activity 1. In groups discuss the concepts given above. Which concepts are you aware of? How would you define them in your own words? . 1.3. Research methods in sociolinguistics The main aim of this chapter is to equip you with key concepts and paradigms related to the research methods used when analyzing sociolinguistic phenomena. In the following chapters we will analyze these research paradigms in more detail. Sociolinguistics investigates how people use language in different environments. It attempts to link patterns of language use to some kind of non-linguistic reality – that is, to things like class, gender, racial or ethnic identification, gang affiliation, and oth- er. In order to investigate these phenomena one needs to have reliable research tech- niques. However, research techniques used and applied in sociolinguistic research 9 are quite different in their nature and always depend on the research question un- der investigation. For instance, sociolinguists interested in the variation of a certain phonological feature across different social classes will depend on the quantitative methods used in variationist sociolinguistics, while sociolinguists interested in the code-switching practices among the bilingual Estonian speech community members might depend on the qualitative methods used in ethnographic research. Some re- search questions might require the application of different research methods. This approach is called a mixed-method approach (or triangulation). 1.3.1. Research traditions in sociolinguistics Coupland & Jaworski (1997: 70–72) differentiate betweenthree research tradi- tions in sociolinguistics: a. variationist – produces statistical information based on large amounts of observed data. This research technique was highly elaborated by its pioneer William Labov, as well as later by Peter Trudgill, Sali Tagliamonte, and many others; b. social constructivist – highlights the importance of language in understand- ing the society and social categories and thus promotes the study of language attitudes, beliefs, judgments and reactions about the language (e.g., the re- search conducted by Howard Giles); c. ethnographic – stresses the importance of the insider’s viewpoint and sub- jectivity, thus, quite often relies on qualitative research techniques or a combi- nation of both – qualitative and quantitative (e.g., the research conducted by Monica Heller, Barbara Johnstone, Kathryn Woolard and others). The variationist tradition evolved over the past five decades as a discipline that in- tegrates social and linguistic aspects of language (Tagliamonte 2006: Kindle Location 90). Variationist sociolinguistics grew out of the linguists’ interest in variation that exists in language and, especially, its correlation to the social life. Thus, as the word “variationist” implies, sociolinguists working in this tradition are interested in differ- ent linguistic variants (variables) used in our everyday speech, in other words, they investigate different existing ways of saying the same thing and look for explana- tions for such use in our social life. Tagliamonte (2006: Kindle Locations 111–114) mentions three main facts about language that constitute the “core” of variationist research: a) the observation that language varies; b) the observation that language changes perpetually; c) language is more than words: it also conveys social meanings. Variationist sociolinguistics relies on several concepts (Tagliamonte 2006): a. the concept of vernacular: the main goal of any variationist research is to elicit “vernacular” speech. Vernacular can be defined as “every day speech” or a “style” in which minimum attention is given to the monitoring of speech; b. the concept of the speech community: a researcher has to immerse him/herself into a community of speakers who share the same verbal repertoire and the same lin- guistic behavior. The researcher has to be both: