RICE UNIVERSITY Archaeological Investigations of Early Trade and Urbanism at Gao Saney (Mali) By Mamadou Cisse A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFULMENT OF THE REGUEREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE Doctor of Philosophy APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: Susan Keech McIntosh, Professor, Anthropology Je frey FleIsher, ro essor, Anthropology ~~ Ro rick J. McIntosh, Professor, Anthropology Ie University HOUSTON, TEXAS OCTOBER 2010 Abstract Excavations at the mound site of Gao Saney, located near the historic town of Gao eastern Niger Bend, Mali, revealed over six meters of domestic deposits and debris from secondary processing of glass and copper dating to the period 700--1100 A.D. This is 200-300 years earlier than anticipated and points to the early development oflong distance trade networks. Lead isotope analysis of copper and glass samples using LA­ ICP-MS points to multiple sources areas, including copper ores in Tunisia and glass production areas in the Middle East. Secondary processing of copper and glass took place at the site, and a substantial portion ofthe sequence comprised mud brick structures and associated domestic trash and wall collapse episodes. The distinctive polychrome pottery assemblage found in the Gao Saney deposits occurs along a 500 km stretch of the Niger Bend between Bentia to the south and Timbucktu to the west, where it appears suddenly and intrusively c. 650-700 A.D. This thesis documents the excavations and the material culture, chronology, subsistence economy and production activities at the site. It argues that the findings support the identification of Gao Saney with the trading town Sarneh mentioned in a tenth century Arab chronicle. The relationship of Gao Saney to Gao Ancien, the putative "royal town" of Kawkaw, is considered through a comparison of material excavated from a massive stone building complex there with the material from Gao Saney. The first millennium pottery at both sites is identical, but elite goods and stone architecture are present in abundance only at Gao Ancien. The evidence supports the identification of a royal town linked to Gao Saney by market and trade relations linked to early long-distance trade. ii This thesis is cordially dedicated to the memory of the late Tereba Togola, my mentor and boss in the Direction National du Patrimoine Culturel of Mali, and to my daughter, Bailo Cisse. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Numerous individuals, organizations and institutions have provided assistance, interest, generosity and encouragement during the course of my research in Gao and my graduate studies at Rice. I am grateful for their help and support. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Susan Keech McIntosh and also my professor Jeffrey Fleisher for their help, support, patience, advice and wonderful supervision throughout the PhD. My dissertation research was generously supported by S. K. McIntosh's research funds. lowe also a special debt of gratitude to the rest of my committee members including Roderick J. McIntosh (my dad and first mentor in field excavation) and Kathryn de Luna for reading and commenting on draft copies of this dissertation. I Thank also the staff and students of the Rice University Anthropology Department who have offered enthusiastic support, encouragement and generosity. Being together during these four years has been a true pleasure. Special thanks are addressed to my friends and office mates Brian Clark, Tsholofelo Dichaba and Abidemi Babalola (Tunde), and also my friend Lem-Lem for their wonderful help and kindness. Special thanks also to Takezawa Choichirio and his institution, the Osaka National Museum of Ethnology (Japan) for the various help and support during the research in Gao. Thanks are extended to the Najan University and the Japan Society for Promotion of Science (Japan), the African Archaeology Network, the US Embassy in Mali and Rice University for their financial support during the various archaeological campaigns in Gao. I thank also Felix Chami, coordinator of African Archaeology network, for supporting and encouraging me during my English training in Dar es Salam iii (Tanzania). African Archaeology Network graciously funded this English training and my stay in Dar. I thank also Timothy Insoll for the gift of his two main books on Gao (Insoll 1996 and 2000). My research was strongly supported by the Ministry of Culture of Mali and its national and local branches (the Direction Nationale du Patrimoine Culturel (DNPC), the Gouvemorat ofGao, the Direction Regionale de la Jeunesse, des Sports, des Arts et de la Culture (DRJSA C) of Gao and the Mission Culturelle of Gao). I would like to thank the Ministers of Culture, Mohamed EI Moctar, and Cheick Oumar Sissoko, and also the General Secretary of the Ministry of Culture, Al Hady Koita, who granted official permissions and actively supported the Gao projects. lowe a special debt of gratitude to my mentor, the late Tereba Togola, tformer Director of the DNPC, for his help, support and advice. Special thanks are extended to Klessigue Sanogo, the Director of the DNPC and Moulaye Coulibaly, who generously provided a vehicle and a driver for my dissertation research at Gao Saney, and also helped and supported during my thesis work. Many thanks also to my colleagues and friends in the DNPC, the Mission Culturelle and the DRJSAC of Gao. They were very helpful in various ways during my dissertation work. My profound gratitude goes to Klena Sanogo, the Director of Institut des Sciences Humaines, Mamadi Dembele and Daouda Keita for their support, encouragement. Our workers from Gao are responsible for the success of the excavations along with site supervisors from the DNPC and partners, the Mission Culturelle and the DRJSAC of Gao. I extend my gratitude to Sidi Lamine Kone, EI Moctar Toure, the late Boubou Gassama and their family, and also our driver Issa Coulibaly for their assistance and help during my dissertation research. Special thanks also to Abigail Chipps Smith iv from the Washington University Department of Anthropology, St Louis, for accepting to be part of our excavation team and also for her help and assistance during my thesis work. I would like to use this opportunity to thank the many other people who actively participated the various Gao excavation campaigns since 2001. They include Seiji Nakao, Miku Ito, YoussoufKalapo, Nafogo Coulibaly, Dr Sakai, Dr Nakaya, Julie Menard, Yamoussa Fane, Sekou Kante, Mohamed Kassibo, Broulaye Diarra, Aminata D. Toure, Soumaila Coulibaly, Malick Koureichi, Mohamed Simaga, Raphael Kamate, Boubacar Togola, Oumou Traore. My apologies to anyone I failed to mention. Numerous scholars have spent time to the analysis of Gao materials. My gratitude goes to Laure Dussubieux for conducting LA-ICP-MS analyses of glass beads and ceramics, Daphne Gallagher for studying paleobotanical remains, Abigail C. Smith and Chet Cain for analyzing faunal material. Thomas Fenn is analyzing Gao copper-based material. I thank him and also Marilee Woods who introduced me to the systematic study of Gao glass beads. I am grateful to my father, Taba Cisse, my mother, Bailo Diaby, my uncle Bemba Seyni Fadiga and my brothers and sisters for their support and encouragement. lowe a special debt of sincere gratitude to my wife Abibata Sanogo and my daughter Bailo Cisse for their patience, help and support during my graduate study. v Table of contents Abstract i Acknowledgements 11 Table of Contents vi List of Figures ix List of Tables x Chapter 1. Introduction 1 Chapter 2. The Gao Region: environmental context, inhabitants and history 8 Environmental context 8 Ethnic groups 12 Historical development 19 Chapter 3. Prior Archaeological Research in the Gao Region 36 Archaeological surveys in the Gao region 37 Excavations in the Gao region 47 Chapter 4. Production, Distribution, Consumption: trade and exchange systems in West Africa 67 Trade systems: production, distribution and consumption 68 Historically documented trade systems in West Africa 76 Archaeological evidence for early trade and exchange 103 Concluding remarks 115 Chapter 5. Archaeological Excavations at Gao Saney 119 Stratigraphy and features of the excavation units 120 Site chronology 138 Chapter 6. Pottery 155 Recovery and sampling procedures 156 Recording Procedures 158 Analysis 171 Summary description of the assemblage 176 Other pottery forms 177 Imported ceramics 178 VI Chapter 7. Glass 205 Glass beads 206 Overview of the glass bead assemblage 214 Glass vessel fragments 215 Discussion 216 Chapter 8. Metal 228 Methods 230 Copper 230 Iron 232 Metallurgical debris 234 Overview of the metal assemblage 235 Chapter 9. Other Small Finds: ceramic, stone, and bone artifacts 242 Beads 242 Spindle whorls 244 Cowrie shells 245 Other bone and shell artifacts 246 Stone artifacts other than beads 247 Chapter 10. Conclusions 256 Overview of occupation and site development 256 Subsistence economy 259 Material Culture 263 Local interactions: Gao Saney and Gao Ancien 267 Bibliography 287 Appendix I. 1.1 ACGS: Level and feature summary in chronological order 300 1.2. ACGS: Level and feature descriptions 303 1.3. GS 1: Level and feature descriptions 310 1.4. GS3: Level and feature descriptions 313 Appendix II. 11.1. Rim sherd attributes and recording codes 316 11.2. Sample body sherd recording form: ACGS 318 11.3. Sample multiple attribute recording form: ACGS 320 11.4. Sample rim sherd recording form: ACGS 321 Appendix III. 111.1. LA-ICP-MS analysis of glass beads from Gao 322 by Laure Dussubieux (2009) 111.2. LA-ICP-MS analysis of glass beads from Gao Saney 329 By L. Dussubieux (2010) vii Appendix IV. Preliminary Report:Lead Isotopic Ratio Analyses of 334 Copper-Alloy Objects Excavated from the Archaeological Site of Gao Saney, Mali, West Africa" by T.R. Fenn (2011) Appendix V. Palaeobotanical Remains, by D. Gallagher 350 Vlll List of Tables 2.1. The population estimate of the Songhay from 1930 - 2009 13 2.2. List of the Za kings in the Tarikh AI-Sudan and the name of individuals commemorated upon the inscribed ste1es in the Gao Saney cemetery 29 3.1.