Research Collection Habilitation Thesis Indoor positioning technologies Author(s): Mautz, Rainer Publication Date: 2012 Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-007313554 Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For more information please consult the Terms of use. ETH Library Indoor Positioning Technologies Habilitation Thesis submitted to ETH Zurich Application for Venia Legendi in Positioning and Engineering Geodesy Dr. Rainer Mautz Institute of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH Zurich February 2012 1 2 Acknowledgements First, I would like to acknowledge the promotion of this thesis by the referent Prof. Dr. Hilmar Ingensand, Institute of Geodesy and Photogrammetry, ETH Zurich. Particularly valuable to me have been open‐minded discussions with him and his networked thinking which inspired me to produce such a comprehensive work. I am indebted to the co‐referent Prof. Dr. Alain Geiger, as well as to my colleagues Sebastian Tilch and David Grimm who took their time to proof‐read this publication and to provide fruitful suggestions. Last but not least I would sincerely thank Mark Leyland for correcting the English text. His help not only improved the quality of this thesis, but enriched my English language in general. My wife Guang was so patient with my late nights, and I want to thank her for her faithful support in writing this work. 3 Contents Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................................................... 6 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 7 1.1 Motivation .......................................................................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Previous Surveys ............................................................................................................................................. 8 1.3 Overview of Technologies ........................................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Indoor Positioning Applications ............................................................................................................ 11 1.5 Structure of this Work ............................................................................................................................... 14 2 User Requirements ............................................................................................................................. 15 2.1 Requirements Parameters Overview .................................................................................................. 15 2.2 Positioning Requirements Parameters Definition ......................................................................... 17 2.3 Man Machine Interface Requirements ................................................................................................ 19 2.4 Security and Privacy Requirements ..................................................................................................... 20 2.5 Costs .................................................................................................................................................................. 20 2.6 Generic Derivation of User Requirements......................................................................................... 20 2.7 Requirements for Selected Indoor Applications ............................................................................. 21 3 Definition of Terms ............................................................................................................................. 25 3.1 Disambiguation of Terms for Positioning .......................................................................................... 25 3.2 Definition of Technical Terms ................................................................................................................ 27 3.3 The Basic Measuring Principles ............................................................................................................. 29 3.4 Positioning Methods ................................................................................................................................... 31 4 Cameras .................................................................................................................................................. 34 4.1 Reference from 3D Building Models .................................................................................................... 35 4.2 Reference from Images .............................................................................................................................. 36 4.3 Reference from Deployed Coded Targets .......................................................................................... 37 4.4 Reference from Projected Targets ........................................................................................................ 38 4.5 Systems without Reference ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.6 Reference from Other Sensors ............................................................................................................... 40 4.7 Summary on Camera Based Indoor Positioning Systems ........................................................... 40 5 Infrared ................................................................................................................................................... 42 5.1 Active Beacons .............................................................................................................................................. 42 5.2 Imaging of Natural Infrared Radiation ............................................................................................... 43 5.3 Imaging of Artificial Infrared Light ....................................................................................................... 43 5.4 Summary on Infrared Indoor Positioning Systems ....................................................................... 44 4 6 Tactile and Combined Polar Systems ........................................................................................... 45 6.1 Tactile Systems ............................................................................................................................................. 45 6.2 Combined Polar Systems .......................................................................................................................... 46 6.3 Summary on Tactile and Combined Polar Systems ....................................................................... 49 7 Sound ....................................................................................................................................................... 50 7.1 Ultrasound ...................................................................................................................................................... 50 7.2 Audible Sound ............................................................................................................................................... 55 7.3 Summary on Sound Systems ................................................................................................................... 56 8 WLAN / Wi‐Fi......................................................................................................................................... 57 8.1 Propagation Modeling................................................................................................................................ 57 8.2 Cell of Origin .................................................................................................................................................. 58 8.3 Empirical Fingerprinting .......................................................................................................................... 58 8.4 WLAN Distance Based Methods (Pathloss‐Based Positioning) ................................................ 60 8.5 Summary on WLAN Systems ................................................................................................................... 64 9 Radio Frequency Identification ...................................................................................................... 65 9.1 Active RFID ..................................................................................................................................................... 66 9.2 Passive RFID .................................................................................................................................................. 66 9.3 Summary on RFID Systems ...................................................................................................................... 67 10 Ultra‐Wideband ................................................................................................................................ 69 10.1 Range Estimation Using UWB ................................................................................................................