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ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 ® UMI THE DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION OF GEOMATICS TECHNIQUES TO ASSIST IN SALT MARSH RESTORATION PLANNING AT BEAUSEJOUR MARSH, NEW BRUNSWICK by KOREEN E. MILLARD Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Applied Geomatics) Acadia University Spring Convocation 2008 © KOREEN E. MILLARD, 2008 Library and Bibliotheque et 978-0-494-41127-8 1*1 Archives Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington OttawaONK1A0N4 OttawaONK1A0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: Our file Notre reference ISBN: NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives and Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans loan, distribute and sell theses le monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, worldwide, for commercial or non­ sur support microforme, papier, electronique commercial purposes, in microform, et/ou autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. this thesis. Neither the thesis Ni la these ni des extraits substantiels de nor substantial extracts from it celle-ci ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement may be printed or otherwise reproduits sans son autorisation. reproduced without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne Privacy Act some supporting sur la protection de la vie privee, forms may have been removed quelques formulaires secondaires from this thesis. ont ete enleves de cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires in the document page count, aient inclus dans la pagination, their removal does not represent il n'y aura aucun contenu manquant. any loss of content from the thesis. Canada This thesis by KOREEN E. MILLARD was defended successfully in an oral examination on April 7, 2008. The examining committee for the thesis was: Dr. J. Roff, Chair Dr. A. Hanson, External Reader Dr. I. Spooner, Internal Reader Dr. A. Redden, Supervisor Dr. T. Webster, Supervisor Dr. C. Hopkinson, Supervisor Ms. H. Stewart, Supervisor Dr. M. Snyder, Head of Department This thesis is accepted in its present form by the Division of Research and Graduate Studies as satisfying the thesis requirements for the degree Master of Science (Applied Geomatics). Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS IV LIST OF FIGURES VII LIST OF TABLES VIII ABSTRACT IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS X CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW - 1 - 1.1 OVERVIEW -1 - 12 SALT MARSHES - 3 - 1.2.1 Salt Marsh Ecosystem Values -3- 1.3 SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES AND SALT MARSH FORMATION - 7 - 1.4 SALT MARSH VEGETATION -10 - 1.4.1 Bay of Funay Marshes - 12- 1.5 SALT MARSHES AND SEA LEVEL RISE -13 - 1.6 THREATS TO SALT MARSHES -14 - 1.7 SALT MARSH RESTORATION -16 - 1.8 GEOMATICS: AIDS IN ASSESSING COASTAL CHANGE -19 - 1.8.1 CIS -20- 1.8.2 Remote Sensing. - 21 - 1.8.3 GPS -21- 1.8.4 LiDAR -22- 1.9 STUDY PURPOSE - 24 - 1.10 OUTLINE OF REMAINING CHAPTERS -25- CHAPTER 2: STUDY AREA AND GEOMATICS DATA PREPARATION - 27 - 2.1 STUDY AREA -27- 22 DATA TYPES, COLLECTION AND PROCESSING - 33 - 2.2.1 GPS Acquisition -33- 2.2.2 LiDAR -38- 2.2.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of LiDAR -41 - 2.2.2.2 LiDAR Processing - 41 - 2.2.2.3 Uses of LiDAR - 42 - 2.2.2.4 Measuring Vegetation Height with LiDAR - 43 - 2.2.2.5 The LiDAR Dataset - 46 - 2.2.2.5.1 LiDAR Validation - 49 - 2.2.2.5.2 Flight-line issues - 50 - 2.2.3 Imagery -53- 2.2.3.1 Aerial photographs. - 53 - 2.2.3.2 Quickbird Imagery - 54 - 2.3 ASSUMPTIONS - 57 - CHAPTER 3 REFERENCE MARSH CHARACTERISTICS - 58 - 3.1 VEGETATION ZONATION - 59 - 3.1.1 Introduction - 59- 3.1.2 Methods: Salt Marsh Species and Zones - 59- 3.1.3 Results - 60 - 3.1.4 Discussion of Vegetation Zonation - 67 - 32 VEGETATION HEIGHT - 69 - 3.2.1 Introduction - 69 - 3.2.2 Methods -69- 3.2.3 Results. -73- iv 3.2.4 Discussion of Vegetation Height. -75 - 3.3 FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF TIDAL INUNDATION - 76 - 3.3.1 Introduction - 76- 3.3.2 Methods -77- 3.3.3 Results -78- 3.4 SPECIES ZONE LIMIT INDICATORS - 84 - 3.4.1 Introduction -84 - 3.4.2 Methods - 84 - 3.4.3 Results -86- 3.4.4 Discussion -86- 3.5 SEDIMENT -88- 3.5.1 Methods - 89 - 3.5.1.1 Density - 89 - 3.5.1.2 Accumulation over time - 90 - 3.5.2 Results -91 - 3.52.1 Density -91- 3.5.2.2 Accumulation -91 - 3.5.3 Discussion -91 - 3.6 EXPOSURE - 94 - 3.6.1 Introduction -94- 3.6.2 Methods - 94 - 3.6.2.1 Limitation of UWWaves Script - 97 - 3.6.3 Results -99- 3.6.4 Discussion -102- CHAPTER 4: MODELING SALT MARSH RESTORATION - 104 - 4.1 INTRODUCTION -104- 4.2 ALTERING THE DEM TO SIMULATE BUILDING AND REMOVAL DYKES -105 - 4.2.1 Methods -105- 4.2.3 Discussion. -108- 4.3 VEGETATION PREDICTION - INITIAL ELEVATION -109- 4.3.1 Methods -109- 4.3.2 Results and Discussion - 109 - 4.4 MODELING RESTORATIONS -Ill- 4.4.1 Introduction - III - 4.4.2 Methods -112- 4.4.2.1 Calculating Depth of the Flood - 112 - 4.4.2.2 Calculating Sediment Deposition -113- 4.22.3 Diminishing Sediment Accumulation -114 - 4.42.4 Duration of Tiding -115- 4.42.5 Calculating Volume of Vegetation behind the Dykes -115- 4.42.6 Calculating Vegetation Height behind the Dykes -117- 4.4.3 Results: Sediment Accumulation through Tidings - 117 - 4.4.3.1 Detecting change in modeled tidings - 123 - 4.4.32 Diminishing returns - 127 - 4.4.33 Sedimentation Rates - 128 - 4.4.3.4 Vegetation Biomass and Height - 130 - 4.4.3.5 Vegetation Biovolume and Accumulation - 132 - 4.4.4 Discussion - 133 - 4.4.4.1 Sediment Accumulation - 133 - 4.4.4.2 Effects of suspended sediment grain size on deposition - 137 - 4.4.4.3 Settling rate vs. annual surface change estimate - 137 - 4.4.4.3.1 Accumulation per tide - 138 - 4.5 How MANY YEARS TO RESTORE EACH RESTORATION SITE? -138 - 4.5.1 Results - 139 - 4.5.2 Discussion - 139- 4.5.2.1 Annual surface change vs. deposition through sediment settling - 139 - 4.5.2.2 Unrestricted tidal flow vs. tidings - 142 - V CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS - 144 - 5.1 GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS -144 - 5.2 ASSUMPTIONS OF THE MODEL -147 - 5.2.1 Hydrodynamics - 147 - 5.2.1.1 Uniform Flooding of the marsh - 147 - 5.2.1.2 AH suspended sediment is deposited -148 - 5.2.1 J Channel Formation - 148 - 5.2.1.4 Vegetation increases roughness - 149 - 5.2.2 Ice -149- 5.2.3 Change in Sea Level - 149 - 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS -150- 5.4 CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE RESTORATIVE ACTIONS -151 - 5.4.1 Tidings - 151 - 5.4.2 Erosion. - 151 - 5.4.3 Geomatics techniques and technologies - 152 - 5.5 FUTURE WORK -153 - REFERENCES -155- APPENDIX A: FLOW CHART OF METHODS 163 - APPENDIX B: USDA SPECIES CODES 164 - VI List of Figures FIGURE 2.1: MAP OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES SHOWING THE STUDY AREA. - 28 - FIGURE 2.2: STUDY AREA SHOWING POTENTIAL RESTORATION SITES AND REFERENCE MARSH -31- FIGURE 2.3: STUDY AREA SHOWING LAND OWNERSHIP - 32 - FIGURE 2.4: LOCATION OF 2 BASE STATIONS USED TO COLLECT GPS VALIDATION POINTS - 35 - FIGURE 2.5: LOCATION OF 76 GPS VALIDATION POINTS ON REFERENCE MARSH - 36 - FIGURE 2.6: TILES OF LIDAR DATA IN MICROSTATION -47 - FIGURE 2.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GEOID (CGVD28) & CHART DATUM - 49 - FIGURE 2.8: A SLICE OF RAW LIDAR POINTS - 52 - FIGURE 2.9: HIGH RESOLUTION AIRPHOTO OF REFERENCE MARSH - 55 - FIGURE 2.10: QUICKBIRD IMAGE: MULTISPECTRAL (2.4M RESOLUTION) - 55 - FIGURE 2.11: QUICKBIRD IMAGE: PANCHROMATIC (0.6M RESOLUTION) - 56 - FIGURE 2.12: QUICKBIRD IMAGE: PANSHARPENED AND ENHANCED (0.6M RESOLUTION) - 56 - FIGURE 3.1: VEGETATION ON THE REFERENCE MARSH: SPECIES COMBINATION, - 62 - FIGURE 3.2: VEGETATION ON THE REFERENCE MARSH: DOMINANT SPECIES - 63 - FIGURE 3.3 VEGETATION ON THE REFERENCE MARSH: VEGETATION ZONES - 64 - FIGURE 3.4: PLOT OF THE ELEVATION LIMITS (MEAN± 1 STANDARD DEVIATION) -65 - FIGURE 3.5: REFERENCE MARSH SHOWING OUTLIERS BY ZONE TYPE - 66 - FIGURE 3.6: CANOPY HEIGHT MODEL (CHM) - 70 - FIGURE 3.7: THE TERRAIN NORMALIZED STANDARD DEVIATION OF LIDAR POINTS - 72 - FIGURE 3.8: CHM DERIVED FROM REGRESSION (EQUATION 3.4) - 74 - FIGURE 3.9: GRID SHOWING CIRCULAR PATTERNS IN LIDAR