Mortal Ancestors, Immortal Images: Zhang Dai’s Biographical Portraits Duncan M. Campbell, Australian National University Nobody looking at paintings and who sees a picture of the Three Sovereigns and the Five Emperors fails to be moved to respect and veneration, or, on the other hand, to sadness and regret when seeing pictures of the last rulers of the Three Dynasties. Looking at traitorous ministers or rebel leaders sets one’s teeth grinding whereas, on sight of men of integrity or of great wisdom, one forgets to eat, on sight of loyal ministers dying for their cause one is moved to defend one’s own integrity … From this consideration does one understand that it is illustrations and paintings that serve to hold up a mirror to our past in order to provide warnings for our future course of action. ) Cao Zhi (192–232), quoted in Zhang Yanyuan (9th Century), Lidai minghua ji [A Record of Famous Paintings Down Through the Ages] In keeping with the name it took for itself (ming , brilliant, luminous, illustrious), the Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was a moment of extraordinary development in the visual cultures of the traditional Chinese world (Clunas 1997; 2007).1 On the one hand, this period of Chinese history saw internal developments in various aspects of preexisting visual culture; on the other, through developments in xylography and commercial publishing in particular, but also through the commoditization of the objects of culture generally, the period also saw a rapid increase in the dissemination and circulation of 1 Clunas writes: ‘The visual is central in Ming life; this is true whether it is the moral lecturer Feng Congwu (1556–?1627) using in his impassioned discourses a chart showing a fork in the road, one path leading to good and one path to evil, or in the importance in elite life of dreams as “visions,” one might say as “visual culture,” since they made visible, to the dreamer at least, cultural assumptions about fame and success’ (2007: 13). I wish here to acknowledge the enormous help and encouragement given me in the preparation of this paper by Professor Geremie Barmé, Dr Claire Roberts, and, particularly, Professor Maurizio Marinelli. The comments offered by the two anonymous readers of the paper have also been immensely helpful in demanding of the paper a somewhat sharper focus. PORTAL Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies, vol. 9, no. 3, November 2012. Politics and Aesthetics in China Special Issue, guest edited by Maurizio Marinelli. ISSN: 1449-2490; http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ojs/index.php/portal PORTAL is published under the auspices of UTSePress, Sydney, Australia. Campbell Mortal Ancestors images of one sort or another, both throughout the empire and beyond.2 If the medium of the late imperial Chinese image as it circulated was not entirely new, its ubiquity nonetheless was certainly unprecedented. Understandably, much of the relevant secondary literature, in both Chinese and English, has focused on painting, particularly on developments in the method and value of portrait painting, once such an important aspect of painting in China but which from around the tenth century onwards had been completely replaced by, particularly, landscape painting as the predominant and most prestigious form (Vinograd 1992). More recently, and addressing the other end of the usual hierarchy of the arts in China, attention has also been given woodblock book illustration (Hegel 1998; Burkus-Chasson 2010). In both these respects, portrait painting and woodblock illustration, the late Ming loyalist painter Chen Hongshou (1598–1652) has been regarded as a critical figure.3 Speaking of Chen’s self-portraits, for instance, James Cahill argues that: ‘Late Ming people can be said to inhabit works of art … but the relationship and the effect are dramatically different [from earlier models]: they typically appear more like people who have taken refuge in the realm of art from a world in which they have no secure place, and who find that the realm of art does not receive them comfortably either. They look out at us as if compelled by some need to assert their existence as individuals, to communicate some sense of their situation’ (1982: 124). What was particular about Chen’s situation? If the first forty-six years of his life had been marred by the sorts of misfortunes that could befall anyone of his age (being orphaned early, repeated examination failure at the provincial level, premature death of his wife, and so on), the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 added layers of guilt and regret to the way that he thought of himself during his last decade, certainly as he represented himself in the numerous pseudonyms he took after this date: ‘Old and Too Late’ (Laochi ), ‘Repentant Monk’ (Huiseng ), ‘Repentance Too Late’ (Huichi ), and so on. As Cahill writes, whereas others in his circumstances either resisted the invaders or committed suicide, Chen Hongshou ‘wept loudly and got drunk and 2 One particular illustration of the increasing importance of the visual during the late Ming period especially is the proliferation of painting manuals, an aspect that has recently received excellent treatment in Park (2012). K. T. Wu (1943: 203) argues that Chinese print culture saw four particular developments in the course of the Ming dynasty (colour printing, woodblock illustrations, the use of copper movable type, and the production of xylographic facsimiles of earlier editions), all of which have implications for an understanding of the visual during this age. 3 For a short English-language biography of this man, see Hummel (1943: 87–88). PORTAL, vol. 9, no. 3, November 2012. 2 Campbell Mortal Ancestors acted so strangely that people thought he was crazy’ (1982: 140). ‘The portraits and figure paintings’ of Chen Hongshou and others, Cahill concludes, ‘can be seen as determined, even desperate attempts to reestablish the old ideal, the interpenetration of past and present, culture and life. But they also stand as admissions of an awareness that the old formula could no longer be made to work’ (1982: 145). In literary terms, and with particular respect to developments in biographical and autobiographical writing, the man who in this late Ming world sought hardest to assert the existence of individuality, his own as well as of his contemporaries, and to communicate to later generations something of the plight they faced was one of Chen Hongshou’s oldest and closest friends, the essayist and historian Zhang Dai (1597– ?1684), a man who had also chosen, problematically, after having ‘misspent’ the first half of his life, to take refuge from the world in the realm of art (and dream).4 In the extensive forty-year-long biographical enterprise Zhang Dai set himself after the collapse of the Ming, he inherits the search for the ‘presence beyond death’ that lies at the heart of all traditional biographical writing in China. To Zhang Dai, however, this promise of immortality appears not to have been vouchsafed only in ‘Virtue’ (de ), ‘Deed’ (gong ) and ‘Word’ (yan ), the establishment of which (li ) in the course of one’s life was traditionally held to constitute the ‘Three Eternals’ of a life well lived (sanbuxiu ).5 Rather, it was to be found in the very complexity and ambivalence of the human condition itself, particularly in times of disorder. For him too, the 4 For short English-language biographies of Zhang Dai, see Hummel (1943: 53–54); and Nienhauser (1986: 220–21). In Chinese, see Xia Xianchun (1989); Hu Yimin (2002a); Hu Yimin (2002b); She Deyu (2006); and Zhang Zetong (2009). Kafalas (1998: 50-85) provides a suggestive discussion of Zhang Dai’s Taoan mengyi [Dream Memories of Taoan]. Spence (2005: 1–10) presents a characteristically insightful reading of Zhang Dai’s family biographies. Both Kafalas and Spence have subsequently published full-length treatments of Zhang Dai: Kafalas (2007) and Spence (2007). Hegel (2006: 345–74) discusses Zhang Dai and his literary endeavours. If the exact time and date of Zhang Dai’s birth (dawn of the 15th day of the 8th month of the Dingyou year of the reign of the Wanli emperor), as he noted in his ‘Ziwei muzhiming’ [My Own Epitaph] (Zhang Dai 1985: 200) is uncontested, the year of his death remains problematical, with proposed dates ranging from as early as 1665 to as late as 1689, for which, see He Guanbiao (1986: 167–93). Hu Yimin (2002b) argues that the latest possible date for his death is the winter of 1680, during his 84th year, whereas Xia Xianchun (Zhang Dai 1991: 1) settles on 1684 as the most likely date. 5 The locus classicus for this expression is the Zuo zhuan [Zuo Commentary] (24th year of Duke Xiang) where Fan Xuanzi inquires of Mushu what is intended by the saying of the ancients ‘They died but suffered no decay.’ His reply was: ‘I have heard that the highest meaning of it is when there is established [an example of] virtue; the second, when there is established [an example of] successful service; and the third, when there is established [an example of wise] speech. When these examples are not forgotten with length of time, this is what is meant by the saying—“They do not decay”’ (Legge 1960: 5, 507). PORTAL, vol. 9, no. 3, November 2012. 3 Campbell Mortal Ancestors biographical investigation of the lives of his friends and his family was also a pursuit of an understanding—and representation—of his own self.6 As I have recently argued elsewhere (Campbell 2010), their authenticity is to be discovered in the flaws (xia ) of his friends and family members, and the knowledge and virtue of history is arrived at only to the extent to which the historian, when writing about his own family and friends particularly, does not allow his vision to be clouded by his fear, his gratitude, or his tenderness, as Samuel Johnson once counseled in his ‘The Dignity and Usefulness of Biography.’ As both historian and essayist, Zhang Dai was interested in affect: in the look, the taste, the smell, the sound and the feel of the past, the force of our sensory impressions in the memory.