Muslim Organisations, Multiculturalism and the UK State1 discrimination legislation of 1966 and 1976 established the racial and ethnic basis of this paradigm and witnessed the emergence of a so-called ‘race relations Dr Seán McLoughlin industry’ to oversee minority affairs. As members of ‘ethnic’ groups, Jews and University of Leeds Sikhs were afforded protection by the law, but not Muslims, given the multiethnic UK and transnational nature of Islam. From the 1960s to the 1990s, ‘race’ relations in Britain have also been Introduction: administered in terms of state policymaking under the rubric of ‘multiculturalism’. In this paper I examine the changing relationship between Muslim organisations As Parekh (2000: 42) suggested in the report of the Commission on the Future of and the State in the United Kingdom. The first part of my analysis presents an Multi-Ethnic Britain, the main political debate in this respect has been between overview of the ways in which the structure of the British State, in terms of ‘nationalists’ and ‘liberals’, both of whom emphasize the importance of social legislation, policymaking and the existence of an established church, has provided cohesion over plurality. ‘Nationalists’ have advocated an ‘assimilationism’ which the framework within which Muslims have organised themselves since the 1960s. maintains that ‘minorities’ should conform to British ‘norms’. In contrast, ‘liberals’ In particular, my account examines the New Labour government’s emphasis on have posited a public space which claims to be ideologically ‘neutral’ but is still civic renewal and the related emergence of what I call the ‘faith relations industry’ overwhelmingly secular and prioritizes ‘equality’ at the expense of ‘difference’. at a time of greater securitisation since ‘9/11’ and ‘7/7’. I also trace a shift in the However, with South Asian heritage minorities especially advancing religion as a main focus of Muslim leaders’ engagement with the State, from more ethnically- major basis for public recognition, Parekh (2000: 48) concluded that if Britain was oriented grassroots networks at the local level from the 1960s, to a more to become a more inclusive and harmonious society, it must expose itself to a ‘professionalized’ national focus for representation of Muslims as ‘Muslims’ at the conversation between liberalism and greater pluralism. Indeed, in a postcolonial national level since the Rushdie Affair in 1989. My paper culminates with an age of ‘transnational citizenship’, he asked the radical question, could Britain examination of the rise and fall of the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), a Muslim recognize itself as, a ‘multicultural post-nation’ (2000: 39)? umbrella organisation which was inaugurated in 1997. Despite being courted by Perhaps not surprisingly, Parekh’s report was not well received by New Labour prior to ‘9/11’ as a likely solution to the stated longstanding problem ‘nationalists’ or ‘liberals’. Moreover, the possibility of any progressive debate of finding a single Muslim interlocutor for UK government, since ‘7/7’ especially about the future of multi-ethnic Britain was quickly overtaken by local and global the MCB has fallen out of favour with government. Indeed, because of its position ‘crises’ when, in the summer of 2001, there were disorders involving Pakistani on UK foreign policy and uncertainties about the Islamist heritage of many of its Muslim heritage youth in the ‘northern towns’ of Bradford, Burnley and Oldham, affiliates, as well as its willingness and ability to challenge the rhetoric of events quickly followed by the attacks of ‘9/11’. By the end of 2001 the New radicalisation, the State has recently sought to engage more plural platforms for Labour government had articulated a new concern for ‘community cohesion’ in a Muslim representation. series of its own reports.2 Without reference to Parekh (2000), Home Office Minister, John Denham, proposed the need for a debate about ‘shared values’ and From ‘Race’ to ‘Faith’ Relations: the UK State, Multiculturalism and the ‘common citizenship’ in order to ‘minimise the risk of further disorder’ (2002: 1- Established Church 2). Denham also maintained that the aim of the new policy of ‘community As members of the Commonwealth, South Asian heritage Muslims – who make up cohesion’ would not be to revisit assimilationism (2002: 21) but rather to promote a around 70-75% of Britain’s 1.6 million Islamic population - became de facto commitment to ‘civic identity’ (2002: 11-12) and ‘civic renewal’ (2002: 18). Here, ‘citizens’ as soon as they settled in Britain during the 1950s and 1960s. However, it is possible to detect the influence of the ‘communitarian’ political philosophy immigration legislation since 1962 has progressively reproduced narrower that achieved prominence in the USA under the Clinton presidency.3 Indeed, conceptions of ‘citizenship’ (Husband, 1994). Indeed, recalling the administration ironically echoing the New Right backlash against local authorities’ ‘multicultural’ of colonial affairs, state management of non-European immigrants in Britain has policies in the 1980s (Husband, 1994), here was a UK-based communitarian been organized in terms of the pragmatic recognition of essentialized ‘cultural communities’ rather than individual civil rights (Baumann, 1999). Anti- 2 These are available at: www.homeoffice.gov.uk/comrace/cohesion/keydocs.html. 3 For an assessment of the relationship between ‘communitarianism’ and New Labour, see Goes (2000) 1 The main body of this article is reproduced from sections of McLoughlin (2005a) although the material and Bevir (2005). This is further explored in a lecture by former Home Secretary, David Blunkett, at was significantly updated 2007-08. www.homeoffice.gov.uk/docs2/civilrennewagenda.pdf. 1 2 critique of the ‘old’ Labour culture of ‘rights’, now said to have neglected citizens’ context of Thatcherism’s disavowal of community and riots in the inner-cities, the ‘responsibilities’ and so reinforced ethnic ‘segregation’. Church of England marked a return to social activism with the 1985 report, Faith in In such a context, and with Islamophobia and appeals to the clash of the City. While ‘other faiths’ were not a major concern of the report it did identify civilisations on the rise, any remaining taboos against publicly challenging aspects ways in which the Church could facilitate their engagement in the public sphere. So of minority culture or religion understood to inhibit ‘cohesion’ or represent a threat it was, in 1992, that still under a Conservative administration, the Department of to security were finally broken. In February 2002, a Home Office White Paper, Environment, in collaboration with the Church and the Interfaith Network for the ‘Secure Borders, Safe Haven’ proposed a new citizenship ceremony for Britain and UK (founded 1987), formed the Inner Cities Religious Council (ICRC) (Taylor, an oath of allegiance (implemented 2004), language tests (especially for ministers 2002).6 With a view to tapping into religious communities’ resources - people, of religion including imams – again implemented 2004) and a debate on networks, organizations, buildings – as a part of urban regeneration, the ICRC transcontinental and forced marriages (Forced Marriage Act 2007).4 Together with provided the first government forum for establishment led multi-faith a raft of new anti- and counter-terrorism measures, this means that Muslim representation and consultation on a national level although it did not command communities have been subject to unprecedented levels of intervention and significant resources. regulation by the British State. Building on the already existing Anti-Terrorism Act Since 1997, when New Labour came to power, government has engaged (2000), the Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Bill (2001) and then the Prevention ‘faith’ much more publicly and controversially so much so that it is possible to of Terrorism Act (2005) proscribed specific organisations, allowed for increased speak of a ‘faith relations industry’ (McLoughlin, 2005a). ‘Communitarian’ powers to stop and search and of detention, as well as creating the new offences of thinking regards religious communities as a particular source of social capital, incitement to terrorism and seeking or providing terrorist training (see Birt, 2005). especially in deprived areas where other forms of social infrastructure may be Of course, Britain is somewhat unusual amongst liberal democracies in that absent (Putnam, 2000). Indeed, in New Labour’s first year of office, the religion has an ‘established’ position in the structure of the secular state (Modood, Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions issued advice to all local 1997). The Anglican Church has a pivotal place in narrations of Englishness and its authorities on ‘involving faith communities’ in neighbourhood renewal.7 By complex relations with political power are reflected still in public institutions from October 2003, ‘the religious issues section of the Home Office Race Equality Unit the Monarchy to the House of Lords and the large number of voluntary-aided state was reconstituted to incorporate the new Faith Communities Unit’ (FCU), schools. Another outcome of Anglicanism’s historical privilege has been that no suggesting that a civic version of ‘faith’ was becoming as important as ‘race’ in the system of formally recognizing ‘other faiths’ exists in the UK. Even in the context state’s management of minority ethnic affairs.8. Legitimated by the 2001 Census, of growing