Bucknell University Bucknell Digital Commons Faculty Contributions to Books Faculty Scholarship Winter 1-15-2011 The Lotus Sutra James Shields Bucknell University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/fac_books Part of the Buddhist Studies Commons, Chinese Studies Commons, History of Religion Commons, Intellectual History Commons, Japanese Studies Commons, Korean Studies Commons, and the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons Recommended Citation Shields, James, "The Lotus Sutra" (2011). Faculty Contributions to Books. 98. https://digitalcommons.bucknell.edu/fac_books/98 This Contribution to Book is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at Bucknell Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Contributions to Books by an authorized administrator of Bucknell Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Shakyamuni Buddha (Shakyamuni Buddha, Ming Dynasty, Xuande Period [1426-65] [gilt bronze], Chinese School, [15th century] / Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA / Gift of Miss Lucy T. Aldrich / The Bridgeman Art Library International) 372 Milestone Documents of World Religions BCE CE Lotus Sutra 100 –200 ca. “All the living beings who escape the threefold world are given the enjoyments of buddhas—meditation, liberation, and so forth.” Overview Hybrid Sanskrit) in order to lend it an air of authority and to allow the teachings to be shared with others. The Lotus The Sutra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Sutra’s self-referential claims to transcendent authority and Dharma (in Sanskrit, Saddharmapundarika- its insistence on the “one vehicle” of dharma—that is, of sutra; in Chinese, Miaofa lianhua jing; in Jap- Buddhist law and teachings—are indicative of some of the anese, Myoho renge kyo), commonly known disputes and transformations that were taking place with- as the Lotus Sutra and believed to have been in Indian Buddhism at the time of its creation. Between composed between the fi rst centurybce and the fi rst century bce and the second century ce, a diffuse the second century ce, is arguably the most movement was developing that would come to be known as revered and infl uential sutra of Mahayana Buddhism and the Mahayana, or “great vehicle.” certainly one of the most signifi cant sacred texts in eastern Mahayana Buddhists generally reject the traditional Asia. Through the medium of parables and short stories, the Buddhist pursuit of individual nirvana (literally, “extinc- twenty-eight chapters of the Lotus Sutra present a number tion”), which implies both a release from worldly suffering of core doctrines of early Mahayana Buddhism. This school during life and liberation from the endless cycle of rebirth fi rst emerged in India and western Asia roughly fi ve cen- (samsara) upon one’s death. While Mahayana Buddhists turies after the death of the historical Buddha, Siddhartha continued to understand nirvana in terms of a release Gautama (ca. 563–483 bce), and would eventually come to from suffering, they centralized the virtue of compassion dominate East Asian Buddhism. The Lotus Sutra’s insistence and further emphasized the necessity of releasing others on faith in the sutra as a revealed text of extraordinary power, from suffering as well as oneself. Mahayana Buddhists combined with its promise of universal buddhahood for all utilize the term bodhisattva to refer specifi cally to beings beings, lends it an air of sacred authority that is unusual if who put aside all personal hopes for liberation in order to not unique to Buddhist scriptures. “save” other beings. This goal is contrasted with the tradi- The Lotus Sutra is a devotional text—that is, one in- tional Buddhist goal of the arhat—enlightenment—which tended to work on the level of the emotions and the senses was perceived by Mahayanists as being somewhat “selfi sh.” rather than the intellect. As such, it has been employed Given this context, it is not diffi cult to read the Lotus Su- throughout East Asian history as a focus for devotion and tra as part of a larger polemic by monks affi liated with the also as an inspiration for art, literature, and political re- broader Mahayana movement to establish their credentials form. In this respect, it plays a role equivalent to the Bible vis-à-vis more traditional monks. And yet, whatever its po- in Europe or the Qur’an in the Middle East. The Lotus lemical or sectarian intent, the success of the Lotus Sutra Sutra is often paired with two shorter texts, the Sutra of as an inspirational and transformative text throughout East Innumerable Meanings (in Sanskrit, Amitartha-sutra; in Asian history can hardly be reduced to this aspect alone. Chinese, Wuliangyi jing; in Japanese, Muryogi kyo) and the Whatever its Indian (or possibly West Asian) origins, the Sutra of Meditation on the Bodhisattva Universal Worthy oldest extant versions of the Lotus Sutra are in Chinese, (in Chinese, Puxian jing; in Japanese, Fugen kyo or Zange and these Chinese translations—particularly that of the kyo), which serve as “prologue” and “epilogue,” respectively. Indo-Kuchan monk-translator Kumarajiva (344–413)— Together, these form the Threefold Lotus Sutra. became the standard versions of the text as it spread throughout East Asia. The Lotus Sutra would eventually serve as the primary text for two important East Asian Bud- Context dhist sects: the sixth-century Tiantai (in Japanese, Tendai) sect, often called the fi rst indigenous Chinese Buddhist At least some parts of the Lotus Sutra were likely com- school, and the thirteenth-century Nichiren (also known as posed in a local Indian or Central Asian dialect, which was Hokke) sect, which can make a similar claim to being the then translated into a form of Sanskrit (known as Buddhist fi rst indigenous Japanese Buddhist sect. For followers of Lotus Sutra 373 both these traditions, the Lotus Sutra contains the highest Time Line stage of the teachings of Shakyamuni, the historical Bud- dha, also known as Siddhartha Gautama. In turn, all earlier ca. ■ Siddhartha Gautama, the 563 Buddha, is alive. teachings—that is, the texts and doctrines of the so-called Hinayana (a pejorative term meaning “lesser vehicle”)—are –483 bce considered provisional stages on the path toward the high- est truth as revealed in the Lotus Sutra. For all this, the ca. bce ■ The Lotus Sutra is compiled in 100 northwestern India (or West Lotus Sutra is notoriously vague about the actual content Asia). of this highest truth or highest law, to the extent that it has –200 ce been called (and criticized as) an “empty text.” Moreover, despite the fact that the text—like many other early Ma- ce ■ Dharmaraksa translates the Lotus hayana sutras—revels in complex visualizations and other- 286 Sutra into Chinese. worldly splendor, it has often been employed as a vehicle for this-worldly sociopolitical critique and religious reform. ce ■ Kumarajiva translates the Lotus Indeed, in terms of its usage, the Lotus Sutra is the most 406 Sutra into Chinese. “political” of all Buddhist scriptures. ■ The Chinese Tiantai sect founder About the Author 587–593 Zhiyi writes two commentaries on the Lotus Sutra, Fahua wenju and Fahua xuanyi, interpreting Nothing is known about the authors of the Lotus Sutra. the Lotus Sutra as the pinnacle Given the content of the text, however, scholars assume of Buddhist teachings and as a basis for meditative practice. that they were monks associated with the Mahayana Bud- dhist movement. The Lotus Sutra as it is known today is a pastiche of several distinct works, written at different times 802 ■ The Japanese Tendai sect by different people for different purposes over a period of founder Saicho lectures on the several centuries. Lotus Sutra before the Japanese imperial court. Explanation and Analysis of the Document 1260 ■ The Nichiren sect founder Nichiren writes Rissho ankoku Within its spectacular scenes and various parables, ron, which correlates a realm’s devotion to the Lotus Sutra with the Lotus Sutra presents the following four core ideas its protection and pacifi cation. of Mahayana Buddhism: the doctrine of upaya, or “skill- ful means,” as the way in which buddhas and advanced bodhisattvas teach the dharma to less-advanced beings; ■ The fi rst translation of the Lotus perfect awakening, or buddhahood, as a realizable goal for 1852 Sutra in a Western language (French) appears: Eugène all beings; the practice of compassion and the way of the Burnouf’s Le lotus de la bonne bodhisattva as the highest goals of Buddhism; and the eter- loi, based on medieval Sanskrit nal and transcendent character of the Buddha. Although manuscripts. they are less immediately apparent, other signifi cant Ma- hayana doctrines—such as emptiness, buddha nature, and ■ The fi rst English translation of the three bodies of Buddha—have also been read into the 1884 the Lotus Sutra appears: Hendrik text by later exegetes. Kern’s Saddharmapundarika; The Lotus Sutra is made up of twenty-eight chapters or, The Lotus of the True Law, based on medieval Sanskrit of varying length. Each chapter contains a mix of straight manuscripts. narrative and verse, with the poetry generally repeating and reinforcing the prose (though most scholars believe that the verse portions are older). Like all Buddhist sutras, the ■ Makiguchi Tsunesaburo Lotus claims to be a record of the words of the historical 1930 establishes the lay Buddhist organization Soka Kyoiku Gakkai, Buddha, Shakyamuni (meaning “Sage of the Shakyas,” the based on the teachings of people of his kingdom)—though it also asserts that this Nichiren and the Lotus Sutra. Buddha, like all buddhas, is considerably more than simply a historical teacher. Four chapters are addressed here: chapter 2, “Skillful ■ Niwano Nikkyo and Naganuma 1938 Myoko establish the lay Buddhist Means”; chapter 3, “A Parable”; chapter 12, “Devadatta”; organization Rissho Kosei Kai, and chapter 16, “The Lifetime of the Tathagata.” The in- based on the Lotus Sutra.