THE VULCAN HISTORICAL REVIEW Vol. 16 • 2012 The Vulcan Historical Review Volume 16 • 2012 ______________________________ Chi Omicron Chapter Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society University of Alabama at Birmingham The Vulcan Historical Review Volume 16 • 2012 Published annually by the Chi Omicron Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta at the University of Alabama at Birmingham 2012 Editorial Staff Executive Editors Beth Hunter and Maya Orr Graphic Designer Jacqueline C. Boohaker Editorial Board Chelsea Baldini Charles Brooks Etheredge Brittany Richards Foust Faculty Advisor Dr. George O. Liber Co-Sponsors The Linney Family Endowment for The Vulcan Historical Review Dr. Carol Z. Garrison, President, UAB Dr. Linda Lucas, Provost, UAB Dr. Suzanne Austin, Vice Provost for Student and Faculty Success, UAB Dr. Bryan Noe, Dean of the Graduate School, UAB Dr. Thomas DiLorenzo, Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, UAB Dr. Rebecca Ann Bach, Associate Dean for Research and Creative Activities in the Humanities and Arts, UAB Dr. Carolyn A. Conley, Chair, Department of History, UAB The Department of History, UAB The Vulcan Historical Review is published annually by the Chi Omicron Chapter (UAB) of Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society. The journal is completely student-written and student-edited by undergraduate and masters level graduate students at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. ©2012 Chi Omicron Chapter of Phi Alpha Theta History Honor Society, the University of Alabama at Birmingham. All rights reserved. No material may be duplicated or quoted without the expressed written permission of the author. The University of Alabama at Birmingham, its departments, and its organizations disclaim any responsibility for statements, either in fact or opinion, made by contributors. Cover art ©2012 Don Stewart. Used with permission. All history students at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, including recent alumni, are encouraged to submit articles, reviews, essays, oral histories, or other works of historical interest to be considered for publication. Submissions by any currently enrolled UAB student are also welcome. Please send inquires to: Phi Alpha Theta Advisor UAB Department of History HHB 360 1401 University Boulevard Birmingham, AL 35294-1152 Letter from the Editors Each year editors of The Vulcan Historical Review are fortunate to work with extraordinary students on their papers. This year is no exception. A particularly unique aspect of this journal is that each article, essay, or review is written and edited by a fellow student. The editorial board members, as well as the authors, consist of a mixture of both undergraduate and graduate students. As editors, we were truly privileged to assist these individuals in transforming their papers into a peer-reviewed journal. The articles, essay, and reviews explore various areas of history from unique perspectives. While different in their own ways, each article was passionately researched. This issue would not be possible without the assistance of several key individuals. The professors of the UAB Department of History challenged their students to write quality papers and encouraged them to submit to this journal. For that we are extremely grateful. Special thanks in this area should be extended to Dr. Colin Davis, whose Historian’s Craft course continues to be a source of excellent submissions, and Ms. Brooke Becker of the UAB Sterne Library, who tirelessly assists students in a wide array of research. Without the support of Dr. Jean Ann Linney of Villanova University, securing funding for this issue would have proven difficult. The Chair of the Department of History, Dr. Carolyn Conley, provided unwavering support. Thankfully, Administrative Assistants, Ms. Jerry Smith and Ms. Andrea Brown, made quiet rooms available during edits. Our greatest thanks must be given to our Faculty Advisor, Dr. George O. Liber, for his patience and leadership. Finally, we would like to thank our fellow editors, who spent countless hours working with their assigned authors in order to make the papers the best that they can be. We hope you will enjoy this issue of The Vulcan Historical Review as much as we enjoyed compiling it. Table of Contents Articles Race Relations, Terrorism, and Nuclear Obliteration: The Hijacking of Southern Airways Flight 49 by Clelly Johnson Best Local History Award . 10 The United States’ Role in Making Cuba Communist by Edward Savela . 32 Children on the Move: Parallels of British and Kindertransport Children during World War II by Beth Hunter . 53 “I am Cain and Abel”: The Cinema of Andrzej Wajda and the Practice of Preference Falsificationby T. Gerald Archer . 68 The Successes of the Anti-Slavery Framers at the Convention of 1787 by Charles Brooks Etheredge . 89 Under the Influence: The Works of Jacques-Louis David by Thomas Kulovitz Undergraduate Spotlight Award . 106 Religion and Rebellion: The Influence of New England Puritanism in the Pre-Revolution Years by Dawn Neel . 121 Christian Pilgrims and Holy Men in Late Antiquity by Billy D. Mann . 134 Invited Essay What’s in the Arab Seasons? by Farah A. Al Farhan . 145 Book Reviews The Permissive Society: America, 1941-1965 by Alan Petigny, reviewed by Ben Cheney . 154 Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson, reviewed by Jacob Fleming . 156 1812: The Navy’s War by George C. Daughan, reviewed by Jeff Hirschy . 158 With the Old Breed, at Peleliu and Okinawa by E.B. Sledge, reviewed by Courtney L. Spencer . 160 Film Reviews The Help, reviewed by Brittany Richards Foust . 163 The Resurgence of the Golden Age of Film: Hugo, The Artist, and Midnight in Paris, reviewed by Reggie Woods . 167 About the Authors & Editors . 172 Chi Omicron Chapter Initiates . 175 BEST LOCAL HISTORY AWARD The recipient of this year’s Best Local History Award is Clelly Johnson for his article, Race Relations, Terrorism, and Nuclear Obliteration: The Hijacking of Southern Airways Flight 49. The article recounts the forgotten story of a 1972 airplane hijacking that originated in Birmingham. Although the article initially inspires interest because of its local setting, the event holds a much wider significance.The author demonstrates that the incident not only directly affected U.S. domestic security policies but also raised questions concerning race relations and civil rights infringements. Perhaps most importantly, the author reinterprets the motivations behind the hijacking by attempting to understand the individuals involved. RACE RELATIONS, TERRORISM, AND NUCLEAR OBLITERATION: THE HIJACKING OF SOUTHERN AIRWAYS FLIGHT 49 Clelly Johnson In 1972 an airplane leaving a connection in Birmingham, Alabama was hijacked by three African American males. This action set off a series of events that became one of the longest hijackings in the history of the United States to date. The crisis had a profound impact on domestic policy, changing the way the United States viewed airport and nuclear security; yet, the disenfranchisement experienced by the three African American hijackers was never seriously considered as an explanation for their actions. Some in the media portrayed the hijacking of Southern Airways Flight 49 as a maniacal terrorist act totally outside the realm of reason, but perhaps the incident should be reexamined as a desperate but reckless reaction to social injustices suffered by the hijackers. Statistics from the four years leading up to the hijacking of Flight 49 establish that an epidemic of air 11 terrorism was sweeping the world. The highest spike in airplane hijackings occurred between the years of 1968 and 1972. During this time there were 326 hijacking attempts worldwide—an average of one every 5.6 days. In the United States alone there were 137 attempts during the five-year span or, one every 13.3 days. A hijacking occurred a mere twelve days before Flight 49 came under attack. The extraordinary frequency of hijackings revealed that they could happen anywhere, even in Birmingham. In the United States, most domestic hijackings during this time period found Cuba as their final destination. The bulk of the hijackings that ended with landings in Cuba were perpetrated by Cuban nationals returning to their homes. Other hijackings were carried out by those disenchanted with the United States or evading law enforcement. Those that fell under the second category saw Cuba as a socialist safe heaven, free from the oppressive hand of the United States. These same individuals were most often African American. Hijackings to Cuba happened so frequently that most planes were equipped with flight plans that could plot direct paths to the island. One theory held that the major rise in hijackings was due to media reports, which inspired potential terrorists. Robert T. Holden concluded that many who hijacked did so because, “Hijackers are individuals who seek publicity because of psychological instability or low self-esteem, so publicity is in itself the motivation for Race Relations, Terrorism, and Nuclear Obliteration: The Hijacking of Southern Airways Flight 49 the hijackings.” During this time there were many inequalities facing minorities in the United States. Holden’s theory could be applied to disenfranchised young minorities, as in the case of hijacker Melvin Cale, a young African American man who had experienced several encounters with the law. When examining the life stories of Cale and his accomplices, Holden’s theory appears to be a likely explanation for the actions of the Flight 49 hijackers.1 Twenty-two year old Melvin Cale found himself engrossed in the media coverage of hijackings, like many others. Before Cale and his two collaborators hijacked Flight 49, the marginalized youth had recently escaped from the minimum security Tennessee State Prison. Cale, sentenced to five years for grand larceny, took classes through the Tennessee State University. As a college student in prison, he spent most of his time in the library collecting research on media coverage of the hijackings. He carried with him a notebook filled with photocopies of newspaper clippings involving hijacking stories. Cale also suffered from severe intestinal problems, which made him feel depressed.