Embattled Identities: Constructions of Contemporary American Masculinity Amongst Mixed Martial Arts Cagefighters by Jaime Holthuysen A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved April 2011 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Hjorleifur Jonsson, Chair Takeyuki Tsuda Andrea Ballestero Salaverry ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2011 ABSTRACT Masculinity has been increasingly recognized as a critical and relatively unexplored area of inquiry in anthropological gender studies. This project seeks to expand anthropological research on masculinity to contemporary American society. Using the case study of a male-centered popular new sport, Mixed Martial Arts (also known as cagefighting) this project integrates theories of embodiment and feminist perspectives to explore how masculinity and masculine hegemony are shaped, contested, and perpetuated in the United States. Using a multi-level framework this project explores: 1) How is masculinity experienced and expressed by Mixed Martial Arts fighters as a form of self-identity? How do their bodies play a role in constructing masculinity? 2) What are the pervasive forms of masculinity associated with Mixed Martial Arts (MMA)? Are they truly representative of the sport? 3) Can these pervasive forms of masculinity be seen as hegemonic? How would hegemony operate in relation to individual experience? Using multiple methods to capture multiple points of view was critical to thoroughly examining the complex notion of masculinity. This study employed participant observation, semi-structured interviews, focus groups, surveys, photo elicitation, and media content analysis, as each presented particular benefits and allowed for the development a more well-rounded understanding of masculinity within the realm of MMA. This study also situates the rise of MMA and its representations of masculinity within the greater perspective of contemporary American society. By doing so reveals how ideologies of prescribed masculinity do not arise out of a ii vacuum but in relation to particular economic, social and political contexts. An emphasis of this study was to examine the daily lives of MMA fighters to understand how their participation in what may be regarded as a hypermasculine activity affects their own perceptions of masculinity. In looking at how masculinity is embodied, the gaps and often contradictions between representation and individual experiences are revealed. Ultimately, the goal of this research is to contribute to a better understanding of masculinity as both an embodied and relational construct. iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, who always wanted one of her children to be a doctor (MD). I think this was the best possible compromise! iv v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the School of Human Evolution and Social Change at Arizona State University, and the Graduate and Professional Students’ Association at Arizona State University. Funding from the Graduate College at Arizona State University and the Emeriti Faculty Association provided welcomed support during the writing phase of this project. There are many people I would like to thank for their time and assistance. I am sincerely grateful for having the support of such an amazing committee. I would like to my chair, Hjorleifur Jonsson, for his unwavering enthusiasm and encouragement. Thank you for providing me with pertinent advice and guidance, while also allowing me the freedom to follow my own path. Thank you to Takeyuki Tsuda who always has his door open for his students. I am grateful for your insights, questions (and also for your careful readings of my many, many grant drafts.) I would like to thank my final committee member Andrea Ballestero, who stepped up to the plate on rather short notice. I sincerely appreciate your insight and vision for ethnography and socio-cultural anthropology. I must thank my colleague (and unofficial fourth committee member), Dolma Roder. Your feedback on my work over the years has truly been invaluable. Also, I would like to acknowledge the time and efforts of Alex Brewis-Slade and Ed Hackett for their comments and suggestions in reviewing my grant proposals. Thank you to the interns who contributed to this project, in vi particular Juli Hubbard for her dedication. Importantly, I would like to thank all of the participants in this study, and also the owners of Desert Combat for allowing me to conduct my research there. I would also like to acknowledge the American Men’s Studies Association for holding their annual meetings where I met inspiring, innovative scholars and received valuable feedback on my research. Thank you to my friends for providing their kind support on this long academic journey: Jacqueline Chao, Alberto Perez, Muna Ali, Alanna Ossa, Ramsi Watkins, Nahal Namdaran, Lindsey Mulligan, and Andrew Hagar. Last but certainly not least I would like to thank my family. Mum, thank you for instilling the importance of education, and the value of dedication and hard work. My sister Janet, I am eternally grateful for your encouragement and editing. Thank you to Patrick Runez for helping me focus when I needed to focus, and distracting me when I needed distraction. I am sincerely grateful for your loving encouragement. Finally, Mr. G.H. Khan, I could not have done this without you. Thank you for always being by my side. You made writing up so much easier. Without all of you, this dissertation would not have been possible. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION: THE GENDERED WORLD OF MIXED MARTIAL ARTS............................................................................ 1 Research Questions ............................................................................4 Research Design .................................................................................5 Research and Gender........................................................................13 Relevant Literature ...........................................................................20 Hegemonic Masculinity ...................................................................21 Phenomenological Embodiment ......................................................29 Mixed Martial Arts: A Background.................................................38 Outline of Study ...............................................................................46 2 EMBODYING MASCULINITY: "IT'S NOT THE SIZE OF THE DOG IN THE FIGHT, BUT THE FIGHT IN THE DOG"...........48 Joining Desert Combat .....................................................................48 MMA Class ......................................................................................55 Fighter’s Class ..................................................................................57 Embodying Mixed Martial Arts.......................................................60 Training.............................................................................................61 Self-awareness, Feeling and a Mind-Body Connection ..................65 Sparring.............................................................................................71 viii Page CHAPTERS Lessons From the Cage ....................................................................74 Getting Hit ........................................................................................75 Competition ......................................................................................77 Conclusions ......................................................................................83 3 BODY IMAGE: "FAT GUYS HAVE TO PROVE IT"......................86 Ideal Bodies and Expectations .........................................................87 Cutting Weight .................................................................................95 Relationships with the Body ..........................................................109 Bodies in Parts................................................................................116 Conclusions ....................................................................................120 PART I Discussion: Embodiment, Body Image, and Hegemonic Masculinity .....................................................................................122 Critiques of Hegemonic Masculinity .............................................122 Hegemonic Masculinity and Mixed Martial Arts..........................125 Embodiment and Body Image in Relation to Mixed Martial Arts 129 4 GENDER, SEXUALITY AND RELATIONSHIPS: "YOU SAY YOU LOVE ME, BUT WHAT PART DO YOU REALLY LOVE?".135 Setting the Gender Stage ................................................................136 Female Fighters ..............................................................................137 ix Page CHAPTERS Ring Girls .......................................................................................149 Girlfriends and Wives ....................................................................153 Groupies .........................................................................................160 Women in the Media ......................................................................163 Becoming Media ............................................................................168 Sexuality and Intimacy...................................................................176 Conclusions ....................................................................................184