Mammal Diversity, Persistence, and Conservation in India by Krithi K. Karanth Department of Environment Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Norman L. Christensen, Supervisor ___________________________ Stuart L. Pimm ___________________________ Dean L. Urban ___________________________ James D. Nichols Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Environment in the Graduate School of Duke University 2008 ABSTRACT Mammal Diversity, Persistence, and Conservation in India by Krithi K. Karanth Department of Environment Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Norman L. Christensen, Supervisor ___________________________ Stuart L. Pimm ___________________________ Dean L. Urban ___________________________ James D. Nichols An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophyin the Department of Environment in the Graduate School of Duke University 2008 Copyright by Krithi K. Karanth 2008 Abstract Biodiversity conservation issues are complex and contentious. In this dissertation, I focus on Indian mammal conservation science, management, as well as policy issues that shape these factors. I am particularly interested in where and which mammals are extinction prone, and what factors promote species persistence in human-dominated landscapes. I examine patterns of extinction, range contraction and current distribution of 25 species of large mammals in India in Chapters 2 and 3. I apply occupancy models to data from a sub- continental scale expert opinion survey. I model species occurrence in relation to ecological and social covariates based on a priori hypotheses about the determinants of mammalian distribution patterns. I find that all 25 large mammal species are extinction prone. I find time affects extinction, and conservation initiatives of the last four decades have allowed some species to re-colonize some areas. I find protected wildlife reserves are critically important for persistence of species. Many species with much of their habitat outside existing protected areas will require new protected areas to persist. I find that human population density negatively influences survival probability for species, and human cultural tolerance positively affected persistence of species. Most large-bodied animals, habitat specialists, and rare species had higher extinction probabilities. I find that in addition to protected areas, land use, and human population densities, regionally rooted cultural and religious factors have allowed some species to survive. Conservation strategies must integrate all these factors to ensure the survival of India’s large mammals in the future. iv Conservation efforts to protect wildlife in human-dominated landscapes, often requires relocation of people. This policy has rarely been examined in detail. In Chapter 4, I focus on a reserve in India’s Western Ghats of India to assess resettlement experiences of people during and after implementation of a relocation project. Lastly, the success or failure of conservation policies and management interventions be they for protecting wildlife or addressing needs of local communities, depends substantially on the attitudes of conservation practitioners. In Chapter 5, I examine the attitudes, perspectives and opinions of Indian conservationists towards conservation issues and policies in India. v Dedication I would like to dedicate this to my grandfather Dr. Shivarama Karanth, the most amazing person I have known. His accomplishments in so many fields as a writer, novelist, theater and dance artist, and passionate environmental activist, continue to inspire me and are a testament to how extraordinary people can be. vi Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................. iv List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... xi List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... xiii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................ xv 1. Introduction and Overview ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Forest History in India ........................................................................................................... 3 1.3 History of Trophy and Bounty of Mammals in India ....................................................... 4 1.4 Changing Landscapes and Attitudes .................................................................................... 6 1.5 Wildlife Protection and Conservation History in British Colonial India ........................ 8 1.6 India Today: Conservation Post Independence ............................................................... 12 1.7 Dissertation Outline ............................................................................................................. 14 2. The Shrinking Ark: Large Mammal Extinctions in India ......................................................... 17 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 17 2.2 Methods .................................................................................................................................. 19 2.2.1 A priori predictions ............................................................................................................ 19 2.2.2 Surveyed Species, Sampling Approach, and Data Sources .......................................... 21 2.2.3 Modeling of Occupancy and Extinction using Covariates .......................................... 22 2.3 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 26 2.3.1 Extinction and Elapsed Time ........................................................................................... 26 2.3.2 Presence and Proportion of Wildlife Protected Areas ................................................. 36 vii 2.3.3 Proportion of Forest Cover.............................................................................................. 36 2.3.4 Elevation ............................................................................................................................. 37 2.3.5 Human Population Density and Cultural Tolerance .................................................... 37 2.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 47 2.5 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 49 3. Where Are India’s Large Mammals and Why? Patterns and Determinants of Species Occurrence ......................................................................................................................................... 51 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 51 3.2 Methods .................................................................................................................................. 53 3.2.1 Occupancy Modeling, Expert Opinion Surveys and Study Design ........................... 53 3.2.2 Estimation and Modeling of Occupancy and Detection Probability ......................... 55 3.2.3 Covariates ............................................................................................................................ 57 3.2.4 A priori predictions ............................................................................................................ 59 3.3 Results ..................................................................................................................................... 60 3.3.1 Proportion of protected area ............................................................................................ 66 3.3.2 Land Cover ......................................................................................................................... 66 3.3.3 Elevation ............................................................................................................................. 67 3.3.4 Human Population Density and Cultural Tolerance .................................................... 68 3.3.5 Estimated Area Occupied by Different Mammals ....................................................... 68 3.4 Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 69 4. Making Resettlement Work: The Case of India’s Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary ....................... 85 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 85 4.2 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................