Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Index More information Index Adowa, battle of (1896), 72, 79, 107, Albertini, Luigi (1871–1941), 108, 110, 117, 137 and Fascist participation in government Adriatic, (1922), 366 and note 393 postwar settlement in, 243, 279, 300 and Italian war aims, 220 supremacy in, as Italian war aim, 100, urges war on Salandra (1914–15), 180 113, 162, 163, 166, 167, 175, 178, Alsace-Lorraine, 70, 92, 187, 238 (Map 180, 181, 220, 223, 242, 251, 271, 2), 285, 294 302, 305–06 annexed by Germany (1871), 57, 91, agriculture, and rural social groups, 130, 146 German (see also Rittergut), 46, 97, ancestor-worship, see great men, cult of, 99, 224, 316, 400 in Germany laborers, 22, 24, 42, 69, 265–66 anti-Semitism (see also Hitler, ideology landlords, 24, 26, 41, 46, 73, 99, of), 193, 225, 379, 387 in Austria, 98 peasant proprietors, 21, 24 in Britain, 132 serfs, serfdom, 21, 24, 34, 42, 51 in France, 133, 134–36 Italian, 44, 59, 61, 66, 68, 224–25, in Germany, 35 and note 36, 66, 92, 316–17 and note 221, 400 97, 99, 127–29, 137 note 184, braccianti, 68–69, 85 and note 48, 190, 191–92, 200, 246, 265, 267, 226, 248, 275, 312, 313, 317, 318, 268, 284–86, 331, 332, 333, 335, 364 336, 402 contract laborers, 68, 317 in Italy, 118–19, 221, 401 landlords, classe proprietaria, 24, apocalypse, ideological role of, 41, 46, 53, 70, 87, 213, 225, 248, in Marxism, 110, 129 275, 280, 314, 317 in Protestant theology, German lease-holders, 68, 69, 226, 248, nationalism, and German wars, 317 30, 31, 48–49, 50, 57, 169, 172, mezzadri, coloni, 23, 44, 68, 248, 174 276–77 and note 91, 317, 319 in the PSI, 86 peasant proprietors, 23, 41, 226, in revolutionary upheavals, 14 317 and stage-theories of history, 30, 31, Albania, as Italian war aim, 242, 276 48, 110, 117, 129, 170, 172 421 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Index More information 422 Index Arendt, Hannah, 12 and note 32, 103 Prusso-German, note 87 1919–20 reduction in force of, 245, aristocracy, 263, 264, 286, 289 French, 13, 31 armaments cooperation of, with Italian, 20, 23, 24, 25, 40–41, 59, Soviet Russia, 286, 290 70 attitude to dictatorship of, 290–91, German, 20, 24–25, 33, 41, 42, 43, 404 73–74, 77, 139, 147, 158, 225, collapse of (1918), 157–59, 197–98, 264, 375, 380, 396 199 Piedmontese, 23, 70–71 conduct of World War I by, 146–59, Prussian, 4, 21, 24–25, 26, 42 182–83, 193–99 Arminius (Hermann: war-leader of the contribution to National Socialist Cherusci; destroyed three Roman theory and practice of, 338–39 legions in the Teutoburger Wald, 9 education (Bildung) in, 42–43, 77 A.D.), 29–30, 54, 56, 122, 173, emancipated from all authority 339, 402 (1918), 263–64 army, Freikorps of, 244–45, 253, 277, 281, British, see Britain, army of 283, 284, 291, 296, 331, 338, 339, French, see France, army of 35 7 , 391, 393, 400 Piedmontese-Italian, general staff of (see also high Arditi of, 207, 221, 252, 277, 299;in command, German), 38–39, 73, Fascist movement, 249, 306–07, 89, 101, 102–06, 147, 153, 159, 310, 321, 322 263, 286, 288, 289, 393, 404 conduct of World War I by, 164–69, and Kapp Putsch (1920), 245 200–23 lack of vocation for military doctrine and military culture of, 37, dictatorship of, 290–91, 384, 106–09, 298–299 385–86, 398 estrangement from Liberal regime of, military culture and doctrine of (see 249–53, 278–79, 392 also Auftragstaktik), 38–39, and the Fascist movement, 310–11, 42–43, 100–04, 138–39, 281–82, 324 341, 393, 404 and Fiume episode, 251–53 and the National Socialist seizure of force structure preferences of, 279, power, 387–89 298 NCO corps of, 76, 78 general staff of (see also high nobility in, 73–74, 264 command, Italian), 71, 108–09 officer corps of, 26, 34, 38–39, internal security role of, 45, 80, 248, 42–43, 73–74, 100, 101, 125, 298 138–39 and the March on Rome, 369–70 officer losses of (1914–18), 205 military malpractice of, 72, 107–08, postwar ruminations and 174, 401 rearmament programs of, 240, NCO corps of, 70, 107 286–91, 352, 372, 397 nobility in, 70–71 pre-1914 war-planning of, 104–06 officer corps of, 25, 70–71, 72, as professional Stand, 75–78, 101 106–07, 108, 298–99 note 81, 83, 104, 106, 147, 156 officer losses of (1915–18), seeks and consummates the 205 destruction of the Weimar social prestige of, 72, 102, 392 Republic, 263, 352–53, 375–76, in wars of independence, 36–37 378–81, 382–89 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Index More information Index 423 shoots Communists “while in World War I, 144–45, 146, 154, 157, attempting to escape,” 244–45, 186, 205, 206–07, 211–14, 376 216–17, 219, 230 social character and status of (see Axis, Rome-Berlin, xi, 15, 406 also army, Prusso-German, nobility in; Stand), 75–78 Badoglio, Pietro (deputy chief, Comando Stosstruppen (storm troops) of, 194, Supremo, 1917–18; chief of staff 195, 207, 216 of the army 1919–20; chief of supremacy over society of, 76–77 general staff, 1925–40; prime total war faction of, 288–89, 398 minister of Italy, 1943–44), 168, wills and launches World War I, 139, 241, 251, 252, 298 146–49 reportedly willing to sweep away Arpinati, Leandro (ras of Bologna), 314, Fascism with machine-gun fire, 317, 364 367, 395 Aryans, racist myths about, Balbo, Italo (ras of Ferrara; “quadrumvir in Germany, 54, 126, 127, 129, 130, of the Fascist Revolution”; chief, 138, 191, 199, 285, 341, 346–47 Italian air force, 1926/29–33; in Italy, 117, 325 governor-general of Libya, Auftragstaktik (mission tactics), 38, 206, 1933–40), 319, 368, 400 287, 339, 405 (see also army, and Mussolini, 328, 329, 337 Prusso-German, military culture “punitive expeditions” of, 364–66 and doctrine of) Barbarossa, see Frederick I “Barbarossa” “August Days” (1914), 169–74, 182, Bauer, Max (army supreme command, 190, 196, 235 1914–18), 154, 194, 229 compared to Italy’s “radiant May,” Bavaria (see also Munich; Party, National 181, 231, 400 Socialist), 33, 66, 227 Auschwitz, 1918 revolution in, 330–31, as a result of Bolshevism, according to antagonism to Prussia of, 190, 193, Ernst Nolte, 9 note 24, 331 245, 257, 284, 332 note 260 anti-Semitism in, 260, 268, 336, 358, and uniqueness of German history, 3, 398 4 army of or in, 88, 102 note 85, 107 Austria, Austria-Hungary (see also note 103, 268, 331, 338, 343, 344, anti-Semitism, in Austria), 78 345 as adversary of Italy, 109, 139, 160–64, and “Beer Hall Putsch,” 246, 284, 345 209 eugenics in, 295 collapse of (1918), 145, 159, 231, 241, and German war aims, 149 249, 294, 405 Landespolizei of, 344–45, 395 ethnic fanaticism of, as legacy to the as original homeland of NSDAP, 343, Italian borderlands, 87 and note 349, 354, 356 52, 119, 311 postwar nationalist-paramilitary ethnic Germans in the former politics of, 244 and note 20, 246, territories of, 294 343–44, 345 expelled from Germany (1866), 34, 40, Bavarian Peoples’ Party (BVP), xiii, 256, 98 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 349, 355, as Italian power, 25, 35, 36, 45, 46, 52, 35 7, 378, 381, 382, 392 53, 72 Benedict XV (r. 1914–22), as rival to Prussia in Germany, 26–27, peace soundings of (1917), 190, 214 35, 37 permits formation of the PPI, 362 © Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-70329-1 - To the Threshold of Power, 1922/33: Origins and Dynamics of the Fascist and Nationalist Socialist Dictatorships, Volume I MacGregor Knox Index More information 424 Index Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von thwarts German nationalism, 40, 57 (German chancellor, 1909–17), wars of, 37, 39, 40 99, 121, 149 Blanning, Timothy C. W., 13 note 36 on 1914–18 as a German “preventive Bloch, Marc, 14 war,” 235 Blomberg, Werner von (Reichswehr aggressive policy of, in July–August minister, 1933–35; minister of 1914, 146, 148, 170, 189 war, 1935–38), convinced that “the Volk needs a war,” attitude toward Hitler of, 388 121–22 enters Hitler government, 389 and German strategy, 150, 152, 153, as key figure in the army’s “total war 187–88, 228 faction,” 289, 388, 398, 404 and “military necessity,” 173 and National Socialist ideology, 405 “policy of the diagonal” of, 188 Bohme,¨ Helmut, 32–33 note 28 removal of, 155, 189, 227, 228 Bolshevik revolution, 10, 195, 232 war aims of, 149–50 and note 14, Bolsheviks, Bolshevik Party, 195, 221, 185 252 Bianchi, Michele (secretary of the PNF, agricultural policy of, 248 not 1921–22; “quadrumvir of the democrats, 232, 254 Fascist Revolution”), 319, 329, Bombacci, Nicola (1879–1945), 271, 274 367, 368 note 85 Bildung (intellectual cultivation, Bonapartism, 136 education, in Germany), 34, 42, Bonomi, Ivanoe (minister of war, 43, 51, 76, 77, 78, 169 1920–21; prime minister of Italy, Bildungsburgertum¨ , 1921–22, 1944–45), 179, 324, and “August days,” 169–74 329, 361, 362, 363, 365 described, 32, 51 Borchardt, Knut, 373 note 414 horror of internal conflict of, 57, 94 Bottai, Giuseppe (minister of national and note 68 education, 1936–43), 221 and note and lower orders, 53 225 relative decline of, in the machine age, Brest-Litovsk, treaty of (1918), 155, 195, 74, 119, 128 236, 341–42 and note 299 megalomania of, 56, 101, 138, 149, “brigandage,”