Falconry in Britain between 1750 and 1927: the survival, organisation and, development of the sport By Gordon T Mellor Submitted in fulfilment of a Doctor of Philosophy Degree Awarded by De Montfort University April 1st 2006 Abstract Falconry, the sport of using trained birds of prey to hunt wild quarry in its natural habitat, had been practiced in the British Isles for more than 1300 years. During the sports 'golden age' in the 16th century it was held in high esteem, was imbued with social imagery, and was regarded as a signifier of status. It began to lose popularity in the period leading up to the Civil War and fell largely into disuse in the years following the Commonwealth. By the early 1700s it was a rare and curious pastime undertaken by very few. During the second half of the 18th century, a period of great change in British Society, when it might have been expected that an activity with such strong links to pre-modern culture would have withered away. Falconry however experienced something of a revival. Whilst limited in scale and always peripheral to the canons of the times, it maintained a small but significant following. This research is an investigation into how falconry was adapted and organised to ensure its survival. The context in which the activity took place is considered in detail, as is the literature and private writing left by those who were practitioners. The relationship with other hunting sports is examined together with a wider sphere of interest; that of the developing science of natural history, and in particular ornithology. This investigation calls into question some of the oft repeated explanations for falconry's decline; that 'shooting flying' superseded it and that the enclosure and cultivation of the countryside rendered it unsustainable. Both indeed effected falconry but neither was found to have been the cause of the sports demise. How the sport adapted through the formation of subscription clubs and how fashion and taste in falconry determined the success and continuation or failure and extinction, was considered. Falconry despite a strong inclination towards a conservative and traditional orientation was found to be both dynamic and adaptive in certain respects, whilst remaining blinkered and stubbornly resolute in others. These qualities determined how the sport survived through out the period investigated: 1750-1927. Acknowledgements Without the support and insight of Dr John Martin this research would not have arrived at completion. Colonel Kent Carnie of the Archives of Falconry in Boise, members of the British Falconers' Club and numerous other falconers, field sportsmen & women, historians, archivists and librarians have facilitated my efforts. However any errors, omissions, or short­ comings in this thesis are mine and mine alone. The forbearance and encouragement of my wife Helena, and our children, Connor, Megan, Callum & Erin, has been much appreciated if rarely stated. I thank you. Dedication In memory of Major Alan Mellor RE 1919-2001 Contents Introduction The problem Page i The period under investigation v Falconry VI The sources VIII The process XI The study XII Chapter I The peregrine Page 1 The constituents of falconry 3 The language of falconry 7 A vai/ability & procurement 8 Scottish & Dutch traditions 10 Eyasses 11 Condition, hack & training 13 Passage hawks, condition & training 17 Chapter II The genesis of falconry Page 25 Introduction into Britain 28 Medieval falconry, social rank, & status 31 Early modern Britain 35 Early English falconry literature 37 The state of falconry 1650-1750 41 Chapter III Mounted falconry & the equestrian tradition Page 52 Enclosures 55 Suitable ground 58 Hunting to hounds 62 Mixed fortunes 65 A hunting man's perception of falconry 67 Chapter IV Establishing seasons Page 76 Game hawking 77 Shooting & the Game Acts 79 Game preservation 82 Shooting, economics & social structure 87 Technical advances 90 The Battue 93 A shooting man's perception of falconry 96 Chapter V New ways of thinking Page 107 The Confederate Hawks 109 The Renfrew Subscription Hawks 113 Hawking at Loo 117 The Old Hawking Club 120 Amateurism & control of the sport 126 Business as usual 136 The new century 138 The end of a tradition 141 The transit of falconry 142 A changing sport in changing times 143 Chapter VI Lilford Page 155 The naturalist 156 Ornithology, identification & collection 159 Publications, commissions & letters 162 Owls 168 Records 169 Sport 171 Lilfords falconry 175 Protection & persecution 177 A vicarious pleasure revisited 180 The benefactor 182 Status 185 Science & the Victorian 187 Chapter VII An intangible sport Page 194 Literature for popular consumption 196 Representation 199 Literature as indicator 207 Fiction & poetry 208 Display 210 Ornithological texts 211 Writing by falconers 215 Falconry abroad 220 The major works 221 Others 224 Optimism 225 The Field 1894 228 An appearance of popularity 232 Chapter VIII Solace from abroad Page 240 Importation: hoods, bells & hawks 241 The imperial imagination 248 Exotic influence 252 An intellectual project 256 Expertise abroad 257 Witnessing the sport 260 Epilogue The British Falconers' Club Page 265 The war years & beyond 266 Pesticides 268 Survival under new circumstances 269 Husbandry, breeding & technology 270 Restrictions 271 A sport with a future? 272 Conclusions Falconry recorded Page 275 The social & cultural context 279 The ethic 280 A contribution to a wider field 281 Suitable country 282 Difficulties & adaptation 288 Lilford 290 A sport represented 290 Limitations 292 Reiteration 293 Addressing the issue 294 References and sources Page 300 Appendix I Species of raptor utilised in British falconry Appendix II Glossary of falconry terms Append ix III Rep resentations Introduction Introduction Scholars who have researched the history and development of the pastimes and sports of the British, cannot fail to be aware of falconry. At one time considered as an intrinsic part of courtly life and a clear indicator of social status, the field sport occupied a significant position in the art and literature of the mid, late-medieval, and early modern period. It is self evident that the activity no longer holds the lofty position that it once did. If one traces the social and cultural history of Britain over the last millennia, it can be seen that there was a marked decline and almost a complete cessation in the sport in a comparatively short period during the later years of the 1ih century. The problem Writers from amongst the 19th century fraternity of falconers together with some historians have recorded the demise of the activity along well rehearsed lines. "It was the invention of the shot­ guns that struck the first and most deadly blow at the popularity of hawking" (Michell 1900 pp3). Lascelles writing in 1892, records that "The almost universal enclosure of the land, ... the introduction of the art of shooting flying, ... all these things contributed to make falconry less possible and therefore less popular than it had been up to the time of the Commonwealth" (pp217). Trevelyan says that "During the Stuart epoch shooting gradually superseded hawking, ... " (1942 pp279). Whilst Birley (1993 pp131) when discussing the second half of the 1700s, states "Shooting was the new vogue, gradually replacing hawking, ... " Again a falconer and this time it is the 20th century doyen Gilbert Blaine, who articulates "Towards the middle of the seventeenth century falconry began to decline. It can hardly be imagined that Cromwell would have promoted its popularity, and the invention of gunpowder added a still more shattering blow to an already lowered prestige." (pp12). Blaine's assumption was incorrect in respect to Oliver Cromwell, who it seems was quite an advocate of the sport, but the tenor of the statement is true; the Commonwealth was characterised by a dominant puritan philosophy, one that largely disapproved of activities such as falconry and republican England saw it decline markedly. Grassby (1997) records that 'propertied society' maintained an interest in the sport until the closing years of the seventeenth century, which accords with some of the above. Whilst there is some equivocation in the literature as to quite when falconry fell from grace; the middle of the seventeenth century or the early seventeen hundreds, one of the culprits leading to the decline is certainly considered to be shooting. However, closer inspection of the quoted sections above shows that other factors were at work as well; Lascelles talks of the enclosure of the land, whilst Blaine considers falconry's prestige already reduced. During the mid to late 1600s new literature on falconry written in English ceased but there was considerable re-printing of older texts that continued into the next century. Authors long dead, such as Turberville, Blome and Cox, were treated to this process. Thus the literature became static, stale and archaic, written in the style of the early years of the previous century. However, with the sport on the wane this is probably nothing more than a sign of a diminishing demand for writing on the subject. In English, new writing on falconry was absent until the Campbell text in 1773. It is tempting to consider this as an indication of a revival in interest however this can only be judged in the context and evidence of the practise itself. Prior to the decline, falconry was recorded so frequently in literature and in such terms that it has lead many to suggest that it was both widely practice and commonplace. This is an assumption made by writers on falconry (Belany 1841, Freeman 1903) and historians .. II alike (Foreman 1975, Malcolmson 1973). The sport, and the term is used here in a traditional sense that encompasses without difficulty or contention the hunting activities, was undeniably one that had social currency. It was well and widely understood; had a language that was both recognised and indeed used in common speech and a utility that went unchallenged.