Zentrum Für Biodiversität und Nachhaltige Landnutzung Sektion Biodiversität, Ökologie und Naturschutz -Center of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use- Section: Biodiversity, Ecology and Nature Conservation Indonesian coastal wetlands The past dynamics of environment and carbon, the potential for climate change mitigation and the assessment for conservation, management and restoration Dissertation for the award of the degree “Doctor of Philosophy” (Ph.D. Division of Mathematics and Natural Science of the Georg-August-University of Göttingen within the doctoral program Biodiversity, Ecology and Evolution submitted by Kartika Anggi Hapsari from Purwokerto (Indonesia) Göttingen, 2018 Thesis committee Prof. Dr. Hermann Behling (Department of Palynology and Climate Dynamics / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Erwin Bergmeier (Department of Vegetation and Pyhtodiversity Analysis / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) PD. Dr. Tim Jennerjahn (Department of Biogeochemistry and Geology / Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) - Bremen) Members of the examination committee Prof. Dr. Hermann Behling (Department of Palynology and Climate Dynamics / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Erwin Bergmeier (Department of Vegetation and Pyhtodiversity Analysis / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) PD. Dr. Tim Jennerjahn (Department of Biogeochemistry and Geology / Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) - Bremen) Prof. Dr. Markus Hauck (Department of Plant Ecology / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Alexander Schmidt (Department of Geobiology / Evolution of Landplants & Development of Terrestrial Ecosystem) Dr. Thomas Giesecke (Department of Palynology and Climate Dynamics / Albrecht-von-Haller Institute for Plant Sciences) Date of oral examination: 19.03.2018 ii To the pretty face my eyes stuck on iii Content Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ vii Summary ......................................................................................................................... ix Zusamenfassung ............................................................................................................. xi Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Coastal wetlands in Indonesia .............................................................................. 3 1.1.1. Characteristics and classification ................................................................. 3 1.1.2. Significance and issues ................................................................................. 5 1.1.3. Conservation, management and restoration of Indonesian wetlands ........... 8 1.2. Aims and objectives ............................................................................................ 10 1.3. Study area ............................................................................................................ 11 1.4. Methodology ........................................................................................................ 13 1.4.1. Core sample source ..................................................................................... 13 1.4.2. Core analyses .............................................................................................. 17 1.4.3. Data handling ............................................................................................. 21 1.5. Outline and content of the chapters .................................................................. 22 References....................................................................................................................... 23 Environmental dynamics and carbon accumulation rate of a tropical peatland in Central Sumatra, Indonesia ......................................................................................... 34 2.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 36 2.2. Study site .............................................................................................................. 38 2.3. Material and methods ......................................................................................... 40 2.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 44 2.5. Discussion ............................................................................................................. 49 2.5.1. The dynamics of peatland and carbon accumulation rate .......................... 49 2.5.2. Factors controlling C accumulation rate.................................................... 56 2.5.3. A pantropical comparison ........................................................................... 60 2.6. Summary and conclusion ................................................................................... 65 References....................................................................................................................... 67 Supplementary 1 ............................................................................................................ 77 Supplementary 2 ............................................................................................................ 78 Supplementary 3 ............................................................................................................ 79 iv Resilience of a peatland in Central Sumatra, Indonesia to past anthropogenic disturbance: improving conservation and restoration designs using palaeoecology81 3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 86 3.2. Study site .............................................................................................................. 89 3.4. Results .................................................................................................................. 96 3.4. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 101 3.4.1. Human activities and their impacts on peatland ....................................... 101 3.4.2. Peatland response to human disturbance .................................................. 106 3.5. Implication for tropical peatland conservation and restoration .................. 111 Suplementary 1 ............................................................................................................ 130 Supplementary 2 .......................................................................................................... 135 Climate and land use change governed environmental dynamics and carbon accumulation in the mangrove-fringed Segara Anakan lagoon, Java, Indonesia in the Anthropocene and beyond .................................................................................... 137 4.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 139 4.2. Study site ............................................................................................................ 142 4.3. Materials and methods ..................................................................................... 146 4.4. Results ................................................................................................................ 149 4.5. Discussion ........................................................................................................... 158 4.5.1. Segara Anakan lagoon dynamics .............................................................. 158 4.5.2. Carbon sequestration in the Segara Anakan Lagoon ............................... 165 4.6. Conclusion.......................................................................................................... 169 Supplementary 1 .......................................................................................................... 182 Supplementary 2 .......................................................................................................... 184 Supplementary 3 .......................................................................................................... 185 Synthesize ..................................................................................................................... 186 5.1. Environmental and C accumulation dynamics of coastal wetlands in Indonesia ............................................................................................................ 186 5.2. Potential of Indonesian coastal wetlands for climate change mitigation ..... 187 5.3. Resilience of Indonesian coastal wetlands to disturbances ........................... 189 5.4. Implications for conservation, management and restoration of coastal wetlands in Indonesia........................................................................................ 190 5.5. Future challenges .............................................................................................. 194 v References..................................................................................................................... 197 Appendix I .................................................................................................................... 200 Appendix II .................................................................................................................