DECOLONISING M ĀORI TOURISM Representation and Identity Maria Theresa Amoamo A thesis submitted for the degree of PhD At the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand November 2008 This thesis is dedicated to my father, Peter Haimona Amoamo ABSTRACT Since the late nineteenth century the tourism industry has focused primarily on two things in selling holidays to New Zealand: the natural landscape and Māori culture. Māori have been involved in tourism for more than 150 years however their “identity” as tourist attractions rather than tourism managers has to some extent marginalised Māori from the control of their own cultural expression. Prior to the 1990s much of New Zealand’s off- shore tourism marketing represented Māori as the exotic “Other” manifest through what Edward Said (1978) has termed Orientalism - the discursive and textual production of colonial meanings whereby language becomes a medium through which a hierarchical structure of power between coloniser (Pākeh ā) and colonised (Māori) is perpetuated. Such images have constructed a homogenous identity of Māori culture. The impact of such demand driven international tourism marketing is reflected in the call by Māori tourism stakeholders to control the representation and meanings of their image, tribal identities and cultural difference. Amongst the key objectives stated in the New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010 is to ‘ensure Māori participate and are partners in the tourism sector and that Māori culture and identity is protected’. However, the notion of identity has been subject to a bicultural relationship between Māori and Pākeh ā that is at odds with Māori aspirations to autonomous development. If increased Māori capacity in the tourism sector is to be effectively managed and sustainable there is a need to recognise and promote the diversity of Māori culture. The industry’s notion of “Māori identity” must reflect the multiplicity of the “Māori subject”; the reality is that modern Māori negotiate a number of identities including tribal. This thesis draws on postcolonial theory to critically examine the representation of Māori cultural tourism in New Zealand. I argue that tribal diversity offers a means by which Māori tourism practice and practitioners subvert the homogenous Other and re-inscribe new subjectivities and meanings in a tourism environment by utilising Bhabha’s (1994) concept of hybridity. The mixing that hybridity represents cannot fit within the bicultural framework of M āori Pākeh ā relations that works against the notion of culture as dynamic and changing. Research findings reveal that tribal differences create regionally diverse subcultures and representations of Māori and show a complex “inclusivity” of Māori i tourism development working within a third space of equity, innovation, creativity and self-empowerment. This third space effectively re-negotiates biculturalism. These issues are discussed within a tourism context that reflects the wider politics of Māori Pākeh ā relations in New Zealand. Thus tourism might act as a medium for offering postcolonial counter-narratives that reclaim cultural power and political discourse in the wider domain of indigenous self-determination. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The undertaking of this research project has been both challenging and fulfilling over the past four years. To my supervisors, Drs Anna Carr and Hazel Tucker I am grateful for the guidance and assistance over the course of this work. A special thanks to Anna who demonstrated an intuitive ability to ‘put me on the right track’ at crucial writing stages of the thesis. Her knowledge of M āori culture was also beneficial. Hazel’s comments in the final stages were especially helpful in forming my concluding chapters. At the departmental level of Otago University I acknowledge the support provided by administrative and academic staff and co-students and whereby a friendly and helpful environment made my studies both achievable and enjoyable. I also wish to thank the support of the Otago University for both scholarship and conference funding. Acknowledgement is also given to personnel in key organisations such as the NZMTC, TNZ, and MRTOs and other industry specialists who have assisted this research and who continue to progress M āori tourism as a sustainable and viable industry. My appreciation is also expressed to those M āori tourism operators I interviewed, who gave of their time and shared their knowledge and experience of what Māori tourism is all about. Most of all my thanks go to my partner Peter who has given unwavering support these past few years. He has been a mentor, advocate, and most of all, best friend throughout. To Peter, lots and lots of aroha . iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract i Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents iv List of Figures vii List of Tables viii Glossary of te reo ix Acronyms xii INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………….1 Background to Research 2 Research and Indigenous Peoples 4 Insider/Outsider 6 Ethical Issues: Kaupapa Research 9 Research Objectives 14 Terms used in this Thesis 22 Structure of this Thesis 27 CHAPTER 1: Colonial Discourse: Constructing the Māori Other Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 29 1.1 Nga Tangata Whenua: Who are Māori 31 1.2 Māori Identity and Tourism 42 1.3 Situating Colonialism 46 1.4 Colonial New Zealand: Constructing the Māori Other 48 1.5 Early Māori Tourism Development 53 1.6 Māori and the Treaty of Waitangi 63 1.7 Summary 74 CHAPTER 2: Culture and Tourism: Issues and Implications Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 77 2.1 Culture and Tourism 78 2.2 Indigenous Tourism Development 85 2.3 Representation and the Tourism Image 93 2.4 Cultural Conflict 98 2.5 The Authenticity Debate 102 iv 2.6 Postcolonialism and Tourism 107 2.7 Hybridity and Difference 112 2.8 Summary 116 CHAPTER 3: From Constraints to Choices: A Postcolonial Critique Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 120 3.1 New Zealand: The Socio-Political Context 122 3.2 Change and Adaptation: Contemporary Māori Tourism 132 3.3 ‘Closing the Gaps’ – He Matai Tapoi Māori 138 3.4 The New Zealand Tourism Strategy and Māori 141 3.5 Demand for Māori Cultural Tourism 147 3.6 Māori Tourism: Regional and National Context 154 3.7 Re-evaluating Māori Tourism 163 3.8 Summary 173 CHAPTER 4: Research Methodology Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 177 4.1 Qualitative Research 178 4.1.1 Theoretical Perspectives of the Research 180 4.2 Review of the Research Question and Objectives 182 4.3. Research Design and Methods 183 4.4 Analysis of Textual Material 186 4.5 Identifying Research Participants 192 4.5.1 Case Study Sites and Operators 196 4.6 Interview Process 201 4.7 Direct observation 207 4.8 Summary 210 CHAPTER 5: Re-imag(in)ing the Māori Other Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 212 5.1 Re-negotiating the Māori Image 214 5.2 Negotiating Image, Identity and Cultural Difference: Case Study Analysis 224 5.3 Marketing and Promotion 225 5.4 Regional Differentiation of Māori Tourism Product 239 5.4.1 Tamaki Makaurau - Auckland 239 v 5.4.2 Tai Tokerau – Northland 240 5.4.3 Rotorua / Taupo / Urewera Region 244 5.5 Identity and Sense of Place: “grass-roots” Māori Tourism 245 5.6 Summary 255 CHAPTER 6: Storying Identities Introduction …………………………………………………….................... 258 6.1 Storytelling – Myths and Legends 260 6.2 Nga Tangata Whenua: Diversity in Identity 297 6.3 Summary 299 CHAPTER 7: Conclusions Introduction ………………………………………………………………… 303 7.1 Tourism and Postcolonialism (Re-visited) 306 7.2 Review of the Research Process 307 7.2.1 Reflections on Research 310 7.3 Key Findings of the Research 311 7.3.1 The ‘Postcolonial’ Māori Image 313 7.3.2 Identity and Cultural Difference 315 7.3.3 Cultural Hybridity 319 7.4 Summary 323 BIBLIOGRAPHY ………………………………………………………….. 325 vi LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Guides Makereti and Bella 55 1.2 Brochures and Postcards 58-59 1.3 Postcards 60 2.1 The Circuit of Culture 94 3.1 MRTO Map 156 3.2 NZMTC Framework 2007 161 3.3 Koru Spiral of Values 166 4.1 Iwi Map of New Zealand 196 5.1 NZMTC and TNZ New Māori Tourism Images 218-220 5.2 Māori ‘warrior’ 221 5.3 NZMTC “Sharing our Stories” 222 5.4 Cultural Descriptions of Product in Māori Tourism Operator Promotional Material 227 5.5 Operator Website Images 230 5.6 Co-owner with Auckland Graffiti Artist 232 5.7 Northland Map 241 6.1 Storytelling: Research Participants Comments 288 vii LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Values of Māori-centred Tourism 171 4.1 Review of Historical Literature / Imagery 190 4.2 Selected Māori Tourism Operators 199 4.3 Interview Schedule with Māori Tourism Agencies / Stakeholders 205 4.4 Guided Tours at Selected Sites 208 4.5 Additional Sites and Attractions Visited During Fieldwork 209 7.1 Key Findings of This Research 312 viii Glossary of te reo ahi k ā keeping the fires of occupation burning Aotearoa New Zealand haka dance; performance hangi underground oven, meal produced in a hangi hap ū family group; sub-tribe hui meeting or gathering, conference iwi tribe; large grouping of hapu sharing a common ancestor kaitiakitanga guardianship, the practice of caring for special places or resources, including the mauri or spiritual nature of such places or resources kaum ātua elders of the iwi or hapu kaupapa plan, strategy, methods, principles kawa protocol; correct way of doing things kāwanatanga governance, trusteeship kete bag kōrero talk, speak, conversation kotahitanga unity movement, unification mana respect, dignity, power, prestige, authority; mana has a variety of meanings including the enduring power of the gods, the power of the land, power of ancestors and