Masculinities in Transcultural Spaces – Negotiations of Masculinities in Ang Lee’s Films Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktorin der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) eingereicht an der Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaftliche Fakultät der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin von Yumin Zhang Prof. Dr. –Ing. Dr. Sabine Kunst Prof. Dr. Ulrike Vedder Präsidentin Dekanin der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin der Sprach- und literaturwissenschaftliche Fakultät Gutachterinnen und Gutachter: 1. PD Dr. Reinhard Isensee 2. Prof. Dr. Nicole Waller Datum der mündlichen Prüfung: 1.12.2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................. 3 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 4 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 5 1. LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................... 18 1. 1 Previous Studies on Ang Lee and His Films .................................................... 18 1.1.1 Bicultural Identity and Cultural Translation ............................................... 19 1.1.2 Orientalism? ................................................................................................ 21 1.1.3 A Gender Perspective: Homosexuality and Femininity .............................. 22 1.2 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................... 27 1.2.1 “Hegemonic Masculinity”: Extending the Use of the Concept .................. 29 1.2.2 Understanding “Hegemonic masculinity” in American Culture ................ 31 1.2.3 Confucianism: A Cornerstone in Conceptualizing Masculinity in Pre- modern China ....................................................................................................... 34 1.2.3.1 Homosociality and the Same-sex Relationship .................................... 35 1.2.3.2 Defining Masculinity in Interpersonal Relations ................................. 38 Father-son Relationship ............................................................................... 39 Man-woman Relationship and Femininity/Masculinity .............................. 42 Male Friendship ........................................................................................... 45 1.2.4 Wen-wu: Asserting a Chinese Masculinity Paradigm in and out of Confucianism ....................................................................................................... 48 1.2.5 Transdifference ........................................................................................... 50 2. WEN-WU MASCULINE IDEAL AND CONFUCIAN FATHERHOOD IN PUSHING HANDS ....................................................................................................... 55 2.1 Beyond the West: Understanding Chinese Manhood in a Culturally Specific Way .......................................................................................................................... 58 2.1.1 Wen-wu Dyad: Asserting a Chinese Masculinity Paradigm ....................... 59 2.1.2 Filial Piety: Defining Chinese Manhood in Fatherhood ............................. 62 2.2 Representing Mr. Chu in the Traditional Chinese Manhood ............................. 64 2.2.1 A Paragon of Wen-wu Model ...................................................................... 64 2.2.2 An Incarnation of Confucian Fatherhood ................................................... 66 2.3 Traditional Chinese Manhood in Transcultural Spaces ..................................... 70 2.3.1 Father-son Relationship .............................................................................. 70 2.3.2 Man-woman Relationship ........................................................................... 77 Mr. Chu vs. Martha .......................................................................................... 77 Mr. Chu vs. Mrs. Chang .................................................................................. 81 2.4 Transdifference .................................................................................................. 88 2.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 91 3. ANOTHER STORY OF HOMOSEXUALITY AND MASCULINITY IN THE WEDDING BANQUET ................................................................................................ 93 3.1 Parody of “Racial Castration” ............................................................................ 97 3.2 Sexuality beyond Hetero: Understanding Homosexuality and Masculinity in Pre-modern China .................................................................................................. 102 3.3 Repressive Chinese Familiality vs. Free American Gayness? ......................... 105 3.4 Homosexual or Heterosexual? ......................................................................... 107 1 3.5 Chinese Manhood in Transcultural Spaces ...................................................... 112 3.5.1 Man-woman Relationship: Wai-tung vs. Wei-wei ................................... 112 3.5.2 Father-son relationship: Mr. Gao vs. Wai-tung ........................................ 115 3.6 Transdifference ................................................................................................ 120 3.7 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 123 4. FROM AMERICAN COWBOY TO CHINESE SUPERIOR MAN [JUNZI] IN BROKEBACK MOUNTAIN ....................................................................................... 125 4.1 Representing Gay Men in the American Cowboy Masculine Model .............. 128 4.2 Debunking Homophobia in Gay Cowboys ...................................................... 136 4.3 Portraying the Same-sex Relationship Beyond Sexual Orientation ................ 138 4.4 Defining Manhood in Interpersonal Relations and Junzi Masculinity in Confucianism ......................................................................................................... 146 4.5 Representing Masculinity in Interpersonal Relations ...................................... 150 4.5.1 Male-male Relations: Ennis vs. Jack ........................................................ 150 4.5.2 Male-female Relations: Ennis vs. Alma ................................................... 152 4.6 A “Coward” or an “Ideal” Man? ...................................................................... 157 4.7 Transdifference ................................................................................................ 163 4.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 165 5. FROME AMERICAN SUPERHER TO CHINESE XIA IN HULK ..................... 166 5.1 Subverting Superhero Masculinity in Hulk ...................................................... 169 5.1.1 Transforming the Body ............................................................................. 170 5.1.2 Rescuing the Woman ................................................................................ 173 5.1.3 Defeating the Villain ................................................................................. 175 5.2 Beyond Bruce Lee’s Body: Chinese Xia Heroism ........................................... 181 5.3 Interpreting the American Superhero in Transcultural Spaces: ....................... 186 5.3.1 Interpreting Hulk in the Context of Chinese Xia Masculinity .................. 186 5.3.2 Hulk as An Image of Chinese American Masculinity? ............................ 191 5.4 Transdifference ................................................................................................ 193 5.5 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 194 6. CONCLUSION ...................................................................................................... 196 6.1 Central Notions and Terms in Lee’s Conceptualization of Masculinities ....... 196 6.1.1 Wen-wu dyad ............................................................................................. 196 6.1.2 Filial Piety ................................................................................................. 197 6.1.3 Femininity ................................................................................................. 198 6.1.4 Homophobia .............................................................................................. 199 6.1.5 Body .......................................................................................................... 200 6.1.6 Social Responsibility ................................................................................ 201 6.2 Implications of the Study ................................................................................. 202 6.3 Future Research ............................................................................................... 206 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 208 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Reinhard Isensee. Without his patience, support, and guidance this project would not be what it is. I would also like to thank Nicole Waller, whose second pair of eyes added another perspective to my work; ultimately making it stronger.