Contents GLOSSARY xiii PREFACE xv INTRODUCTION 1 Changing Interpretations: The Abwehr. The Wehrmacht. The School of the 1970s. The Three "Truths" of Jeckeln. Historiography: Jewish Survivors. German Works. Latvians in Emigration. Soviet Writings. Witnesses. Who Killed the Jews of Latvia? Spontaneity Versus Orders. The Causes of Latvian Participation: Propaganda. Higher Orders. Numbers of Latvian Participants. The Latvian Guilt: Criminal Guilt. Political Guilt. Moral and Metaphysical Guilt. I. THE HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT 35 Historical Background. Latvia in July 1941: The Partisans and Self-Defense Forces. Military and Paramilitary Units: The Latvian Voluntary SS Legion. Schutzmannschaften. Social Elites and Sub-groups: Ulmaniesi. Kalpakiesi. Valdmaniesi. Aizsargi. Officers. Perkonkrustiesi. Korporeji. Intellectuals. Relatives of the Deported. Repatrianti. German Jewish Policy: Himmler-Heydrich Plans. Latvian Role in the Killings. Names and Uniforms. II. THE JEWS OF LATVIA 58 The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Population. Latvian- Jewish Relations to 1914: Latvian Notice of the Jewish Presence before 1914. The 1905 Revolution. The Jews in Independent Latvia. The Ulmanis Regime. Jews Under the First Soviet Occupation. III. ANTI-SEMITISM 79 Perkonkrusts. Nazi Anti-Semitism: General Anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism and the State of Latvia. Anti-Semitism in Latvian Culture. The Ultimate Anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism and the Killing of the Jews. Anti-Semitism and the Latvian Participation in the Killings. The Jewish-Bolshevik Nexus. June 17, 1940. Deportations of June 14, 1941. Causes of Collaboration. IV. NAZI GOALS AND POLICIES 116 Nazi Imperatives. Racial Attitudes. The Search for Latvian Collaborators: The Abwehr Episode. The Security Police and the SD. The Ministry of the East. Latvians and Weapons in 1941. The Civilian Government—Ostland: Land Self- Administration. Economic Exploitation. Contents V. THE SD IN LATVIA 145 Einsatzgruppe A. Latvian SD Auxiliaries: The VagulSns Commando in Jelgava. The Teidemanis SD Group in Valmiera. The Latvian SD, 1941-45. The SD School Furstenberg. The SD Press and Propaganda. VI. THE ARAJS COMMANDO 173 Biographical Sketch. The Establishment of the Sonderkommando. The Structure of the Commando: The Size of the Commando. Militarization of the Commando. The SD School Furstenberg. The Activities of the Commando: Night Actions. Synagogue Burning. Bikernieki. Blue-Bus Actions. Rumbula. Partisan Actions. Salaspils. The Career of an A rajs Man. The End of the Commando. VII. THE KILLING OF THE LATVIAN JEWS 203 Sources of Evidence. The Fuhrerbefehl in Latvia: Martin Sandberger's Evidence. Stahlecker's Memorandum of August 6, 1941. General Jeckeln and the Rumbula Action. Anti-Jewish Laws and Regulations: Ghettoization Law. Himmler's and Heydrich's Orders. Einsatzgruppe A in Latvia: The Patterns of Killing. The First Murders in Latvia: July 1 in Riga. July 2 and 3 in Riga. Night Actions. Burning of the Synagogues in Riga. Stahlecker's Phase, July to October: The Mass Killings in Riga—Bikernieki. The Massacres in the Provinces. The Provincial Accomplices. Zemgale—Jelgava. Vidzeme. VIII. RUMBULA 239 The Arrival of Jeckeln: The Jeckeln System. Organization of the Action. Transport. SD Personnel. Ordnungspolizei. Final Orders. The German Participants in the Action. Latvians in the Rumbula Action. The Creation of the Small Ghetto. Knowledge of the Intent. November 30, 1941. December 8, 1941: Frida Michelson. Ella Medale. Matiss Lutrins. Numbers at Rumbula. Reclaiming of Rumbula. IX. THE KILLINGS IN THE CITIES 271 Daugavpils: Ehrlinger's Actions. Hamann's Actions. Tabbert's Actions. Rezekne: Jews and the Rezekne Cheka. Liepaja: The Jews of Liepaja. The Liepaja SD—Its Leadership and Activities: Reichert. Grauel. Kiigler. The December Massacre. Latvian Participants: The Latvian SD Wachzug. Vainode. Aizpute. Grobina. The Liepaja Ghetto. Ventspils. X. THE SCHUTZMANNSCHAFTEN 311 The Origins of the Schutzmannschaften: The Name. The Riga City Police: Jews and the Riga Police. The Police and the Atrocities. The Schutzmannschaften in the Provinces: The Contents xi Crimes of the Local Police. The Police Battalions: The 20th Battalion and the Riga Ghetto. The 18th Battalion in Belorussia. The Warsaw Ghetto Guards. XI. GHETTOS AND CAMPS 336 Lohse's Plan. The Establishment of the Riga Ghetto: Jewish Property. Enclosing the Ghetto. The Ghetto after Rumbula: Condition of the Ghetto. Civilians Against SD. The Reich Jews in Latvia: 1941-1943, Chronology. Concentra- tion Camps in Latvia: Mezaparks (Kaiserwald) Camp. Salaspils. Jumpravmuiza (Jungfernhof). Strazdu Muiza. Dundaga. Killings in 1944. CONCLUSION 375 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Stahlecker's Answer to Lohse's Guidelines 378 Appendix 2: German and Latvian SD in Latvia 381 Appendix 3a: Jews in Independent Latvia—Statistics 395 3b-h: Jewish Residences in Latvia 402 Appendix 4: Schutzmannschaften and the Jews: 410 Jews in the 1941/42 Riga Police Archives 410 Viesfte Police Discusses Jewish Property 413 Organization Chart of Latvian Auxiliary Police: Cities and Provinces 417 TABLES Table 2.1 Jews in Latvia 58 Table 2.2 Jews of Latvia by Regions, 1935 61 Table 2.3 Jewish Residents in Major Cities, 1935 61 Table 2.4 Jews in Cities and Towns, 1935 62 Table 2.5 Jews and Other Ethnic Groups in Latvia, 1935 62 Table 5.1 The SD Network in Latvian Cities 1941 -1944 151 Table 5.2 The Security Police and the SD of Latvia 152 Table 5.3 The SD Commando Under the KdS in Late 1942 154 Table 5.4 The Composition of the Latvian SD Forces 163 Table 7.1 The Number Executed to October 15, 1941 222 Table 9.1 Jews Killed by Liepaja SD 288 Table 9.2 German SD and Other Authorities in Liepaja 288 Table 9.3 The 1941 Killing Operations in Liepaja 292 Table 11.1 Ghetto Inhabitants by Age and Sex 348 Table 11.2 Ghetto Jews by Crafts 348 Table 11.3 Record of Transports to Latvia 355 Table 11.4 Ghetto Administration, 1941-1943 357 Table 11.5 Kasernierte (live-in) Ghetto Jews, September 23, 1943 362 Table 2a 1 Einsatzgruppe A Members in Latvia 381 Table 2a 2 Members of the Latvian SD 384 xii Contents Table 3a. 1 Occupational Distribution of Jews in 1935 395 Table 3a.2 Jewish Entrepreneurs in Latvia 395 Table 3a.3 Industrial Enterprises 396 Table 3a.4 Hospitals 396 Table 3a.5 Infant Mortality per 100 Children Born 397 Table 3a.6 Housing 397 Table 3a.7 Attendance at Yiddish and Hebrew Schools 397 Table 3a.8 Jewish Children in the Elementary Schools 397 Table 3a.9 High Schools 398 Table 3a. 10 Jewish High Schools in Latvia, 1936-1939 398 Table 3a. 11 Jewish Students by Types of High Schools 398 Table 3a. 12 Knowledge of Languages, 1930 399 Table 3b. Ethnic Composition of Riga 400 Table 3c. Jewish residences in Latvia 402 Table 3d. Jews in Latvian Cities 403 Table 3e. Adminstrative districts of Latvia 405 Table 3f. Jews in Kurzeme and Zemgale 406 Table 3g. Latgale 407 Table 3h. Vidzeme 408 Table 4.1 Command Structure of Precinct Police in Latvia 416 MAPS Latvia vi Riga Ghetto, Rumbula Action, 1941 252 Riga Ghetto, October 25 to November 30, 1941 342 Closing of the Riga Ghetto, January 1942 to November 1943 351 Riga Ghetto, 1942 to November 1943 358 Census Districts in Riga, February 1935 401 Jewish Residences in Latvia 402 Administrative Districts of Latvia 405 ILLUSTRATIONS Soviet Use of the Holocaust, 1945 8 General Director O. Dankers Calls for Volunteers, 1943 42 SS-Leader Issues Draft Notice, March 19, 1943 43 Soviet Anti-Zionist Cartoon 71 An Anti-Semitic Cartoon, 1941 85 Advertisements for Membership in the SD 164 Arajs Commando in 1942 174 A Riga Ghetto Street Today 359 GRAPHICS Graph 2.1 Jews in Latvia, 1897-1989 59 Graph 2.2 The Jews of Riga, 1824-1993 60 Einsatzgruppe A—Graphics 392 BIBLIOGRAHY 419 INDEX 441.