Canadian Psychology Copyright 2008 hy the Canadian Psychological Association 2008. Vol. 49, No. 2, 140-147 0708-559I/a8/$I2.00 DOI: 10.1037/0708-5591.49.2.140 Literacy Development in Early French Immersion Programs Fred Genesee Debra Jared McGill University University of Western Ontario Research findings on reading acquisition in early French immersion programs are reviewed. Findings on general reading outcomes, in English and French, are reviewed first, followed by a review of reading outcomes for students who are at risk for reading difficulty because of below-average levels of academic ability, poor first language abilities, disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and minority language status. There follows a review of studies on individual differences in reading outcomes, including research on students with or at risk for reading difficulties, and on interventions to support students with reading difficulties in immersion. Conclusions along with suggestions for future research are offered. Keywords: literacy, second language reading, French immersion The Canadian educational landscape changed dramatically in followed by studies on students who might be considered at risk 1965 with the introduction of a French immersion program in the for low levels of achievement in reading because of below-average small community of St. Lambert, Quebec. This program took a levels of academic ability, poor or impaired first-language abili- radical departure from traditional education in Canada by educat- ties, disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds, and minority lan- ing English-speaking students in French. Students in this new guage status. We then review studies on individual differences in program received initial literacy (and academic) instruction in reading outcomes, including research on students who are at risk French before being taught reading and writing in English. Im- for reading difficulty, and finally studies on interventions for mersion programs have proliferated across the country (and indeed students who need additional support. worldwide) since 1965, and there are currently over 300,000 Canadian students in immersion (Canadian Parents for French, n.d.). The original St. Lambert program provided all instruction in General Reading Outcomes French beginning in kindergarten until the end of Grade 2. Alter- English native forms of immersion have been developed, varying primarily with respect to when French is used as a medium of curriculum Evaluations of early total immersion, many of which were instruction (in primary or middle elementary grades, or later—in carried out during the first two decades after the program was late elementary or high school) and how much instruction is given inaugurated, found that students scored significantly below grade through French; distinctions are usually made between total and level on tests of English word knowledge and reading comprehen- partial immersion with the latter consisting of less than 100% sion during those grades when no instruction in English was instruction and a minimum of 50%. Detailed descriptions of pro- provided (Genesee, 1978; Geva & Clifton, 1994; Lambert & totypical immersion program models can be found in Genesee Tucker, 1972; Swain & Lapkin, 1982). Immersion students (1987,2004). achieved parity with English comparison students in these same We review findings on reading acquisition in students in early skills usually within one or two years of having English language French immersion programmes (see Genesee, 1987, 2004; Lam- instruction (e.g., Genesee, 1978; Lambert & Tucker, 1972; Rubin, bert & Tucker, 1972; and Swain & Lapkin, 1982, for general Turner, & Kantor, 1991; Swain & Lapkin, 1982). Early total reviews). There was an initial surge in research on immersion immersion students' ability to catch up to students educated en- programs that lasted until approximately the midl980s. Research tirely in English within one or two years suggests that skills during this period was motivated largely by concerns about the acquired in French can be, and are, transferred to English, and effects of immersion on student achievement, including reading. possibly vice versa (Cashion & Eagan, 1990). Their competence in This has been followed by research with a greater focus on English reading may also refiect students' literacy experiences in individual differences in, and processes underlying, the acquisition English outside of school (Cashion & Eagan, 1990; Romney, of French reading skills in immersion. We begin with research that Romney, & Menzies, 1995). It has been found that early immer- has examined general reading outcomes in English and French, sion students continue to perform as well as comparison students in all English reading skills assessed when evaluations are carried out in higher grades (Genesee, 2004). These findings have been confirmed in more recent studies by Fred Genesee, McGill University; Debra Jared, University of Western Ontario. TumbuU, Lapkin, and Hart (2001) and Lapkin, Hart, and TumbuU Correspondence conceming this article should be addressed to Fred (2003), which were based on Ontario-wide testing of Grade 3 and Genesee, Psychology Department, McGill University, 1205 Docteur Pen- 6 students' reading, writing, and mathematics using the Education field Avenue, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A lBl. E-mail: Quality and Accountability Office of Ontario evaluations (EQAO). [email protected] The EQAO tests are curriculum-based criterion-referenced tests 140 SPECIAL ISSUE: LITERACY DEVELOPMENT 141 rather than the commercial standardized tests used in much of the programs a test of reading fluency and observed that fewer im- early research. Tumbull et al. found that French immersion stu- mersion students were independent readers when reading in dents in Grade 3 were more likely to score at Levels 3 or 4 French and that fewer had good passage-retelling scores in com- ("expected" and "exceeds grade level expectations," respectively) parison with regular program students reading in English. Cashion on tests of English reading than students in English programs (55% and Eagan (1990) noted that when reading French texts, immersion vs. 48%), except for students who had had no instruction in students in Grade 3 could get the gist but could not answer English prior to taking the test. The Grade 6 results reported in questions concerning details of the text. Many of their oral reading Lapkin et al. (2003) indicate that French immersion students' errors in French were nonsense words or did not make sense in performance on the English reading tests was clearly better than context. Malicky, Fagan, and Norman (1988) found that Grade 1 that of students in English-only programs (71% vs. 51% scored at and 2 immersion students were less able to integrate background Levels 3 or 4, respectively). knowledge and maintain the author's intended meaning when Comparisons of early total immersion versus early partial im- reading French than when reading English. These studies suggest mersion and of early versus delayed immersion indicate that there that more sensitive tests than the standardized reading tests that is no advantage to English word recognition and reading compre- have been used in much of the early research are needed to gain a hension skills development in immersion programs that provide clearer understanding of immersion students' reading abilities. It is more or early English instruction, as in early partial immersion, in also important to assess reading fluency, because fluency is largely comparison with programs that provide less or delayed instruction influenced by reading practice, and two studies have observed that in English, as in early total immersion (Genesee, 2004; Noonan, French immersion students engage in little French reading outside Colleaux, & Yackulic, 1997). Contrary to the more-English-is- of school (Genesee, 1981b; Romney et al., 1995). In interviews, better hypothesis, in at least one case, it was found that students in the Grade 5 immersion students in Romney et al.'s (1995) study early total immersion—in which English language instruction was indicated that they thought that a lack of French vocabulary was delayed until Grade 4 and was limited to 20-30 min per day in the main reason for their difficulty in reading French. Grades 4 to 6—scored significantly better than English compari- son students in the same district on tests of word recognition and At-Risk Leamers reading comprehension (Genesee, Holobow, Lanibert, & Char- trand, 1989). Immersion and English program students were com- In this section, we review studies that have examined the per- parable with respect to socioeconomic background, ruling out this formance of students who might be considered at risk for academic as an explanatory factor. difficulty because of low levels of general academic ability, poor first-language abilities, disadvantaged socioeconomic background, French and minority language status. The general issue in question here is whether such students are at greater risk of academic difflculty or Comparisons between students in all types of immersion pro- even failure in immersion than are similar students in all-English grams and students in core French programs have consistently programs (see Genesee, 2007, for a comprehensive review of these revealed that the former score significantly higher than the latter studies). This issue has generated a considerable amount of dis- on tests of word recognition and reading comprehension (e.g., cussion (Bernhard,