Frontline Learning Research Vol.5 No. 1 (2017) 58 - 75 ISSN 2295-3159 Executive functions in the context of complex learning: Malleable moderators? Matthias Schwaighofer1, Markus Bühner, Frank Fischer University of Munich, Germany Article received 19 August / revised 4 January / accepted 9 January / available online 15 February Abstract Executive functions are crucial for complex learning in addition to prior knowledge. In this article, we argue that executive functions can moderate the effectiveness of instructional approaches that vary with respect to the demand on these functions. In addition, we suggest that engagement in complex activity contexts rather than specific cognitive training paradigms may enhance executive functions and yield practically relevant transfer effects to other cognitive abilities. We develop several hypotheses and principles for how to improve executive functions in these contexts. For future research, we suggest to systematically investigate the moderating role of executive functions in learning environments with varying degrees of instructional support and varying context characteristics. We identify potential factors influencing the improvement of executive functions to be considered in a systematic research program. Keywords: Executive functions; complex learning; moderation; training 1Corresponding author: Matthias Schwaighofer, Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Leopoldstraße 13, 80802 Munich, Germany. Email: [email protected] DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.14786/flr.v5i1.268 Schwaighofer et al 1. Problem In recent research on learning and instruction, learners’ prior knowledge and working memory capacity are considered crucial prerequisites for complex learning. It is widely accepted that prior knowledge is variable. Working memory is usually considered to be limited and constant apart from developmental and intra-individual variation (e.g., due to task demands; Trezise & Reeve, 2014). Moreover, the interplay of prior knowledge and working memory is typically considered to be the main determinant of learning in complex learning environments. Two recent patterns of findings in other areas of research may challenge this apparent consensus. First, working memory is but one from a set of basic cognitive functions called executive functions (Andersson, 2010; Miyake & Friedman, 2012). There is evidence that other executive functions are highly relevant for complex learning as well. Second, the view that working memory and other executive functions cannot be altered substantially, except through developmental changes and apart from intra-individual variations, has been challenged by recent studies. In this article we link these two bodies of research and delineate the impact of an innovative framework for research on learning and instruction. 2. Executive functions in the context of complex learning 2. 1 Definition of executive functions Executive functions are basic cognitive functions (Andersson, 2010) and as such are typically conceived as effective across domains (Friedman & Miyake, 2017). Executive functions receive attention due to their strong relation to self-control (also referred to as self-regulation) (Miyake & Friedman, 2012). Self-control is considered important for numerous outcomes relevant to daily life, including learning (e.g., Blair, Ursache, Greenberg, Vernon-Feagans, & The Family Life Project Investigators, 2015; Mischel et al., 2011). The literature on executive function typically focusses on working memory, shifting, and inhibition as core executive functions (for an overview see Miyake & Friedman, 2016). Working memory is used to store and manipulate information temporarily (Baddeley, Allen, & Hitch, 2011). Working memory processes typically involve retrieval and transformation of information from long-term memory and from the environment. These processes are strongly dependent on the capacity of working memory (Ecker, Lewandowsky, & Oberauer, 2014; Ecker, Lewandowsky, Oberauer, & Chee, 2010). The capacity of working memory is limited to about four chunks (collections of concepts with strong associations), on average (Cowan, 2001). Individual capacity limits can differ widely, ranging from 2 to 6 chunks (Cowan, 2001). Individual differences in working memory capacity may be explained by three mechanisms, which include maintenance of information in short-term storage, retrieving information from long-term memory, and attentional control (Shipstead, Lindsey, Marshall, & Engle, 2014). Working memory capacity seems to be crucial for complex learning (e.g., Sweller, 2011). However, capacity is not the only aspect of working memory that may be relevant for complex learning. Updating is sometimes also considered to be an important aspect of working memory. Updating involves the continuous monitoring and adding or removal of content in working memory (Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter, 2000). Based on three experiments, Ecker et al. (2014) conclude that the removal of irrelevant information from working memory is the crucial part of substitution, hence also for working memory updating. Retrieval and transformation of information from long-term memory as two further updating processes have found to be strongly related to working memory capacity (Ecker et al., 2014; 2010). Converging evidence indicates that updating and working memory capacity are both strongly related to each other (e.g., Wilhelm, Hildebrandt, & Oberauer, 2013; Schmiedek, Hildebrandt, Lövdén, Wilhelm, | FLR 59 Schwaighofer et al & Lindenberger, 2009; Schmiedek, Lövdén, & Lindenberger, 2014). In a nutshell, updating processes seem to be largely related to working memory capacity that is considered to be crucial for complex learning (see section 2.2.). Therefore, for research on complex learning we suggest putting an emphasis on working memory capacity. This emphasis does not however, imply that updating-specific processes, like the removal of items from working memory, are irrelevant for complex learning. Shifting, also denoted as attention switching, refers to the ability to switch flexibly between multiple representations and strategies with changing task demands (Miyake et al., 2000). Inhibition is the ability to overcome dominant or prepotent responses (Miyake & Friedman, 2012), which enables an individual to avoid acting on the first reaction that comes to mind. Inhibition may be involved in working memory and shifting processes. For example, the intent to store only information of a given text in working memory presumably requires inhibition of interference from other sources of information (e.g., thoughts unrelated to the text). Switching attention between different parts of a text requires inhibition of previous parts of the text. For relatively simple tasks, studies have shown that there is no specific variance left for inhibition controlling for a common factor extracted from working memory and shifting (e.g., Miyake & Friedman, 2012). In addition, for several approaches to measuring inhibition the construct was deemed to be multi-dimensional (e.g., Friedman & Miyake, 2004; Krumm et al., 2009). Despite these findings, inhibition seems to be important for many processes requiring working memory and shifting and may explain variance in the context of complex learning. Thus, we consider the role of the executive function of inhibition for complex learning in our framework. In the remainder of the article, the term executive functions refers to working memory, shifting and inhibition whereas the term cognitive functions also includes cognitive abilities or skills such as fluid intelligence and long-term memory. 2.2 Relevance of executive functions for complex learning A main instructional goal with complex learning is to simultaneously facilitate conceptual learning in a domain and the development of skills. Complex learning typically provides the learner with non-trivial activities related to inquiry, design or problem solving in real domains. Learners’ appropriate engagements in these activities require the coordinated application of domain concepts as well as strategies or skills (see also van Merriënboer & Kirschner, 2012, p. 2). In the following, we argue that the executive functions of working memory, shifting, and inhibition are important for complex learning. In general, the executive function of working memory seems to be crucial for learning because it provides a mental workspace in which information can be held while carrying out other activities (Gathercole & Alloway, 2007). Working memory capacity is considered to be important for complex learning within cognitive load theory (e.g., Sweller, 2011). According to cognitive load theory, the role of working memory capacity is connected to the element interactivity of learning material. Elements are information to be learned or information that has been learned (e.g., a concept; Sweller, 2010). Collections of interacting elements can therefore be conceived as chunks. Learning material with many interacting elements, which cannot be learned in isolation, is high in element interactivity and induces a high load on one’s central executive function, namely working memory. Interacting elements that have to be simultaneously processed in working memory may be unrelated to learning relevant information. However, the interacting elements in relevant learning material can be crucial to fostering understanding (Sweller, 2010). Thus, we consider complex learning material as being high in element interactivity.