14820_PO4_291-293_r1ek.qxd 4/2/04 8:16 PM Page 291 PART FOUR Interregional Patterns of Culture and Contact, 1200–1550 CHAPTER 12 n Eurasia, overland trade along the Silk Road, which had begun before the Mongol Eurasia and Its IRoman and Han empires, reached its peak during the era of the Mongol Aftermath, 1200–1500 empires. Beginning in 1206 with the rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongols tied CHAPTER 13 Europe, the Middle East, Russia, and East Asia together with threads of con- Tropical Africa and Asia, quest and trade centered on Central and Inner Asia. For over a century and a 1200–1500 half, some communities thrived on the continental connections that the CHAPTER 14 Mongols fostered, while others groaned under the tax burdens and physical The Latin West, 1200–1500 devastation of Mongol rule. But whether for good or ill, Mongol power was CHAPTER 15 The Maritime Revolution, based on the skills, strategies, and technologies of the overland trade and life to 1550 on the steppes. The impact of the Mongols was also felt by societies that escaped con- quest. In Eastern Europe, the Mediterranean coastal areas of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and Japan, fear of Mongol attack stimulated societies to or- ganize more intensively in their own defense, accelerating processes of ur- banization, technological development, and political centralization that in many cases were already underway. By 1500, Mongol dominance was past, and new powers had emerged. A new Chinese empire, the Ming, was expanding its influence in Southeast 291 14820_PO4_291-293_r1ek.qxd 4/2/04 8:16 PM Page 292 292 1 Asia. The Ottomans had captured Constantinople 2 and overthrown the Byzantine Empire. And the 3 Christian monarchs who had defeated the 4 5 Muslims in Spain and Portugal were laying the 6 foundations of new overseas empires. With the fall of 7 the Mongol Empire, Central and Inner Asia were no longer at 8 the center of Eurasian trade. 9 As the overland trade of Eurasia faded, merchants, 10 11 soldiers, and explorers took to the seas. 12 The most spectacular of the early 13 state-sponsored long-distance ocean 14 voyages were undertaken by the Chinese 15 16 admiral Zheng He. The 1300s and 1400s also saw 17 African exploration of the Atlantic and Polynesian colonization 18 of the central and eastern Pacific. By 1500 the navigator Christo- 19 pher Columbus, sailing for Spain, had reached the Americas; within 20 twenty-five years a Portuguese ship would sail all the way around 21 22 the world. New sailing technologies and a sounder knowledge of the 23 size of the globe and the contours of its shorelines made sub-Saharan 24 Africa, the Indian Ocean, Asia, Europe, and finally the Americas more ac- 25 cessible to each other than ever before. 26 27 The great overland routes of Eurasia had generated massive wealth in East 28 Asia and a growing hunger for commerce in Europe. These factors animated the 29 development of the sea trade, too. Exposure to the achievements, wealth, and 30 resources of societies in the Americas, sub-Saharan Africa, and Asia enticed the 31 emerging European monarchies to pursue further exploration and control of the 32 33 seas. 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 R 52 L 53 ROUGH PAGES 14820_12_294-323_r1ek.qxd 4/2/04 3:36 PM Page 294 12 Mongol Eurasia and Its Aftermath, 1200–1500 CHAPTER OUTLINE The Rise of the Mongols, 1200–1260 The Mongols and Islam, 1260–1500 Regional Responses in Western Eurasia Mongol Domination in China, 1271–1368 The Early Ming Empire, 1368–1500 Centralization and Militarism in East Asia, 1200–1500 DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE: Mongol Politics, Mongol Women ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY:From Gunpowder to Guns 294 14820_12_294-323_r1ek.qxd 4/2/04 3:36 PM Page 295 hen the Mongol leader Temüjin˚ was a boy, a ri- with the fall of the Tang Empire (see Chapter 10), 1 val group murdered his father. Temüjin’s mother revived. 2 W 3 tried to shelter him (and protect him from dogs, During their period of domination, lasting from 4 which he feared), but she could not find a safe haven. 1218 to about 1350 in western Eurasia and to 1368 in 5 At fifteen Temüjin sought refuge with the leader of the China, the Mongols focused on specific economic 6 Keraits˚, one of Mongolia’s many warring confedera- and strategic interests and usually permitted local 7 tions. The Keraits spoke Turkic and respected both cultures to survive and continue to develop. In some 8 9 regions, local reactions to Mongol domination and Christianity and Buddhism. Gifted with strength, cour- 10 age, and intelligence, Temüjin learned the importance unification sowed seeds of regional and ethnic iden- 11 of religious tolerance, the necessity of dealing harshly tity that grew extensively in the period of Mongol de- 12 with enemies, and the variety of Central Asia’s cultural cline. Societies in regions as widely separated as 13 14 and economic traditions. Russia, Iran, China, Korea, and Japan benefited from 15 In 1206 the Mongols and their allies acknowl- the Mongol stimulation of economic and cultural ex- 16 edged Temüjin as Genghis Khan˚, or supreme leader. change and also found in their opposition to the 17 His advisers included speakers of many languages Mongols new bases for political consolidation and af- 18 and adherents of all the major religions of the Middle firmation of cultural difference. 19 20 As you read this chapter, ask yourself the follow- East and East Asia. His deathbed speech, which can- 21 not be literally true even though a contemporary ing questions: 22 recorded it, captures the strategy behind Mongol suc- ● What accounts for the magnitude and speed of the 23 cess: “If you want to retain your possessions and con- Mongol conquests? 24 25 quer your enemies, you must make your subjects ● What benefits resulted from the integration of Eura- 26 submit willingly and unite your diverse energies to a sia in the Mongol Empire? 27 single end.”1 By implementing this strategy, Genghis 28 ● How did the effect of Mongol rule on Russia and the 29 Khan became the most famous conqueror in history, lands of Islam differ from its effect on East Asia? initiating an expansion of Mongol dominion that by 30 ● In what ways did the Ming Empire continue or dis- 31 1250 stretched from Poland to northern China. continue Mongol practices? 32 Scholars today stress the immense impact Temüjin 33 and his successors had on the later medieval world, 34 and the positive developments that transpired under THE RISE OF THE MONGOLS, 35 Mongol rule. European and Asian sources of the time, 36 1200–1260 37 however, vilify the Mongols as agents of death, suffer- 38 ing, and conflagration, a still-common viewpoint based 39 on reliable accounts of horrible massacres. he environment, economic life, cultural institutions, 40 The tremendous extent of the Mongol Empire Tand political traditions of the steppes (prairies) and 41 deserts of Central and Inner Asia contributed to the ex- 42 promoted the movement of people and ideas from pansion and contraction of empires. The Mongol Empire 43 one end of Eurasia to the other. Specialized skills de- owes much of its success to these long-term conditions. 44 veloped in different parts of the world spread rapidly Yet the interplay of environment and technology, on the 45 throughout the Mongol domains. Trade routes im- one hand, and specific human actions, on the other, 46 proved, markets expanded, and the demand for prod- cannot easily be determined. The way of life known as 47 nomadism gives rise to imperial expansion only occa- 48 ucts grew. Trade on the Silk Road, which had declined sionally, and historians disagree about what triggers 49 these episodes. In the case of the Mongols, a precise as- 50 Temüjin (TEM-uh-jin) Keraits (keh-rates) sessment of the personal contributions of Genghis Khan 51 Genghis Khan (GENG-iz KAHN) and his followers remains uncertain. 52 R 53 L 295 1st Pass Pages 14820_12_294-323_r1ek.qxd 4/2/04 3:36 PM Page 296 296 Chapter 12 Mongol Eurasia and Its Aftermath, 1200–1500 1 Descriptions of steppe nomads made from felt, leather, and furs. Women oversaw the 2 Nomadism in from as early as the Greek breeding and birthing of livestock and the preparation 3 Central and writer Herodotus in the sixth of furs. 4 Inner Asia century B.C.E. portray them as Mongol dependency on settled regions related pri- 5 superb riders, herdsmen, and marily to iron for bridles, stirrups, cart fittings, and 6 hunters. Traditional accounts maintain that the Mongols weapons. They acquired iron implements in trade and 7 put their infants on goats to accustom them to riding. reworked them to suit their purposes. As early as the 8 Moving regularly and efficiently with flocks and herds re- 600s the Turks, a related pastoral people, had large iron- 9 quired firm decision making, and the independence of working stations south of the Altai Mountains in western 10 individual Mongols and their families made this deci- Mongolia. Neighboring agricultural states tried to limit 11 sion making public, with many voices being heard. A the export of iron but never succeeded. Indeed, Central 12 council with representatives from powerful families rati- Asians developed improved techniques of iron forging, 13 fied the decisions of the leader, the khan. Yet people who which the agricultural regions then adopted. The Mon- 14 disagreed with a decision could strike off on their own.