Introduction to Scheme { a Language Is Described by Specifying Its Syntax and Semantics { Syntax: the Rules for Writing Programs

How do you describe them Introduction to Scheme { A language is described by specifying its syntax and semantics { Syntax: The rules for writing programs. z We will use Context Free Grammars. Gul Agha { Semantics: What the programs mean. z Informally, using English CS 421 z Operationally, showing an interpreter Fall 2006 z Other: Axiomatic, Denotational, … { Look at R5RS for how this is done formally CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 2 Context Free Grammars Example: English Language A (context-free) grammar consists of four { Terminals parts: 1. A set of tokens or terminals. These are the atomic symbols in the language. { Non-Terminals 2. A set of non-terminals. These represent the various concepts in the language 3. A set of rules called productions { Productions mapping the non-terminals to groups of tokens. { 4. A start non-terminal Main Non-Terminal CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 3 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 4 Example: English Language Example: English Language { Terminals { Terminals z Words of the language z Words of the language { Non-Terminals { Non-Terminals z sentences, verbs, nouns, adverbs, complex, noun phrases, ..... { Productions { Productions { Main Non-Terminal { Main (Start) Non-Terminal CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 5 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 6 1 Example: English Language Backus Naur Form { Terminals { BNF non-terminals are enclosed in the z Words of the language symbols < … > { Non-Terminals { < > represents the empty string z sentences, verbs, nouns, adverbs, { Example: complex, noun phrases, ..... <string> ::= < > | <char><string> { Productions <char> ::= a | b | c | ..... z Any guesses ::= should be read as can be { Main Non-Terminal | should be read as or z sentence Sometimes Æ is used for ::= CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 7 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 8 A Grammar for Core Scheme Grammar continued <expression> Æ <constant> Æ <boolean> <constant> | <number> | <character> | <identifier> | <string> | (if <expression> <expression> <expression>) | (define <identifier> <expression>) <formals> Æ (<variable>*) | (quote <expression>) | <variable> | <(<variable >…<variable >. <variable>) | (begin <expression> ... <expression>) 1 n | (lambda <formals> <body>) <body> Æ <expression> | <procedure call> <procedure call> Æ (<operator> <operand>*) <operator> Æ <expression> <operand> Æ <expression> And productions for <boolean>, <number>, <character>, <string> CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 9 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 10 Syntactic Keywords of Scheme An Overview of Scheme { Control: quote, lambda, if, define, { R-E-P begin. z Interacting via the Read-Eval-Print loop { Atomic Data { Predicates: equal? null? zero? z booleans, numbers, symbols, characters & ... strings ... { Expressions { Recognizers: integer? boolean? z What are they? and how are they evaluated. string? pair? list? procedure? ... { Conditionals { Lists: car cdr cons ... z if and syntactic sugar (macros): not, and, or, cond. { Recognizers & Predicates CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 11 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 12 2 Overview of Scheme (Contd.) Overview of Scheme (contd.) { Functions { Recursive Definition z lambda, let, let* z what is it, some examples, and how it works. { Definitions { Recursion vs Iteration z what they are and what they look like. z translating a while into a recursive function (tail recursion) { Lists & quote z what they look like, including the empty list { List Processing z some world famous list functions { List Manipulation z Constructing and deconstructing lists: car, cdr, { Functionals cons z functions of function e.g., mapping & sorting CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 13 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 14 Binding Functional Language { Pattern Matching Functions are first-class values in Scheme.. z what is it & how is it done. { Functions can be used as arguments { Notions of Equality { Functions can be returned as values z eq? and its many relations. { Functions can be bound to variables and { Data Mutation & Scheme Actors stored in data structures z setcar!, setcdr! and the sieve of erasthones Important Note: No mutations Scheme is not a strictly functional (assignments) may be used in the first language: bindings of variables can be couple of MPs mutated. We will avoid this for now. CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 15 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 16 Talking to Scheme > (define cell (cons + *)) > 3434 > (+ 1 2 3 4) > cell 3434 24 (cons + *) > (integer? 2345) > + #t + #<primitive-procedure *> > (procedure? (car cell)) > (+ 1 2 3 4) > (lambda (x) (* x x)) true 10 (lambda (a1) …) #<CLOSURE (x) (* x x)> > (define + *) > ((cdr cell) 5 5) #<unspecified> ¾ ((lambda (x) (* x x)) 12) 144 25 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 17 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 18 3 Atomic Data Notes { Booleans { Characters & Strings { Booleans, numbers, characters are z the truth values: z #\a #f #t constants. ;lower case letter a { Numbers z #\space ; the preferred { Symbols (other than predefined z integer way to write a space functions) must be given a value. z rational z #\newline z real ; the newline { All these data types are disjoint, i.e. z complex number character nothing can be both a this and a { Symbols or z "this is a typical string“ identifiers that. z Used as variables to name values CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 19 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 20 Expressions Examples { Constants, Symbols and Data > (* 3 4 (+ 2 3)) { Lists 60 z Special forms > (*) z Application of a function to given arguments 1 <exp> ::= (<exp> <exp> ... <exp>) > ((lambda (x) (* x 4)) 4) Stands for: <function application> ::= 16 (<fun> <arg1> ... <argn>) > ((car (cons + *)) 7 3) 10 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 21 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 22 Notes Sequencing (begin <exp> ..... <exp>) { Function application is call-by-value. { evalutes the expressions <exp> from left right Each <arg> is evaluated, as is the { returns the value of the rightmost expression. <fun>. >(begin (write "a") (write "b") { The order of evaluation is not (write "c") (+ 2 3)) specified. "a""b""c"5 { Some functions have no arguments. z writes "a", "b" and "c" out to the screen, in { ( ) is not a function application, its that order. the empty list. z evaluates to 5. CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 23 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 24 4 Lists Lists and Expressions ¾ (list? x) { Scheme expressions are lists ¾ evaluates to #t if and only if x is/names a list. { Expressions are evaluated ¾ Otherwise it evaluates to #f. { How to say something is a list rather than an expression? ¾ ( ) ;the empty list { Use the special form quote: ¾ (list? ( )) > (quote <expression>) ¾ (null? ()) z evaluates to the list or scheme object expression. ¾ (null? x) z No evaluation of expression takes place. ¾ (this is a list with a very deep z Abbreviated as: ((((((((((((((((((end))))))))))))))))))) ’<expression> CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 25 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 26 Examples Notes { Notation Convention >’(+ 1 2) z Recognizers end with a ? z There is also a ! convention -- used for something different >’(+ ’(* 3 4) 1 2) { Constants Convention z Constants such as booleans, strings, characters, and numbers do not need to be quoted. >(procedure? ’+) { Quoted Lists >(procedure? +) z A quoted list is treated as a constant. It is an error to alter one. >(symbol? ’+) { Nested Lists >(symbol? +) z Lists may contain lists, which may contain lists, which may contain lists .... CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 27 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 28 List Manipulation Operations Examples { cons is the list constructor 1. (cons 1 ()) evaluates to (1) { car gets the first element of a list. 2. (cons 5 ’(1 2 3 4)) z Its name comes from: 3. (cons ’(1 2 3 4) ’(5)) Contents of the AddressRegister. 4. (car ’(a b c d)) { cdr gets the rest of a list. 5. (cdr ’(a b c d)) z Its name comes from: 6. (caar ’((1) 2 3 4)) Contents of the Decrement Register. 7. (cddr ’(a b c d)) { Names inherited from the first implementation of 8. (cdddr ’(a b c d)) Lisp on IBM 704 back in 1958. 9. (cddddr ’(a b c d)) CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 29 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 30 5 Notes Lisp Manipulation Axioms 1. (car ()) is undefined, as is (cdr ()). 1. (car (cons <a> <d>)) is <a> 2. (pair? <list>) => #t when <list> is non-empty. 3. (pair? ()) 2. (cdr (cons <a> <d>)) is <d> 4. Any composition of cars and cdrs of length upto 3. If <list> is a list, then length 4 is valid, z car cdr (cons (car <list>) (cdr <list>)) z caar cdar cadr cddr z caaar cdaar cadar caddr cdadr cddar cdddr is equal? to <list> z caaaar ......... cddddr Question: How many operations in this last line? CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 31 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 32 List Recursion Think Recursively! { Check if it is a list (list? …) Write a function, F, which when { Repeatedly apply cdr till you reach given a list <list> produces a the end of the list new list, obtained by adding 1 { Use (null? …) to check if it empty to every number in the <list> before deconstructing { Use (cons …) to build a list ¾ (F ’(a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4 e 5)) { Use (cdr …) to walk through list (F ’(a 2 b 3 c 4 d 5 e 6)) CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 33 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 34 Base Case and Induction The Answers { If <list> is the empty list, then { (F ’( )) should just be ( ) what should (F <list>) be? { if (car <list>) is a number { If I know what (car <list>) is, and I (F <list>) should be also know what (F (cdr <list>)) is, (cons (+ 1 (car <list>)) (F (cdr do I know what (F <list>) should <list>))) be? { if (car <list>) is not a number (F <list>) should be (cons (car <list>) (F (cdr <list>))) CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 35 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 36 6 The Code Tracing Procedures (define F > (F '(a 1 b 2 c 3 d 4 e 5)) > (trace F) (lambda (l) (a 2 b 3 c 4 d 5 e 6) (F) (if (null? l) ( ) > (F '(1 2 3 4)) | | |() (if (number? (car l)) |(F (1 2 3 4)) | | (5) (cons (+ 1 (car l)) | (F (2 3 4)) | |(4 5) (F (cdr l))) | |(F (3 4)) | (3 4 5) (cons (car l) | | (F (4)) |(2 3 4 5) (F (cdr l))))))) | | |(F ()) (2 3 4 5) CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 37 CS 421 Lecture 2 & 3: Scheme 38 Understanding cons Box Diagrams •cons creates a new pair each time it is called! List notation Pair notation •eq? on pairs returns true if and only if the two pairs are the same pairs (a b c d) (a .

Introduction to Scheme { a Language Is Described by Specifying Its Syntax and Semantics { Syntax: the Rules for Writing Programs

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