© Copyright 2005 Thomas J. Minichillo Middle Stone Age Lithic Study, South Africa: An Examination of Modern Human Origins Thomas J. Minichillo A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2005 Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Department of Anthropology University of Washington Graduate School This is to certify that I have examined this copy of a doctoral dissertation by Thomas J. Minichillo and have found that it is complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the final examining committee have been made. Chair of the Supervisory Committee: __________________________________________________________________ Angela E. Close Reading Committee: __________________________________________________________________ Angela E. Close __________________________________________________________________ James K. Feathers __________________________________________________________________ Donald K. Grayson __________________________________________________________________ C. Garth Sampson Date: ___________________________ In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctoral degree at the University of Washington, I agree that the Library shall make its copies freely available for inspection. I further agree that extensive copying of the dissertation is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as prescribed in the U. S. Copyright Law. Requests for copying or reproduction of this dissertation may be referred to Proquest Information and Learning, 300 North Zeeb Road, PO Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, to whom the author has granted “the right to reproduce and sell (a) copies of the manuscript in microform and/or (b) printed copies of the manuscript made from microform.” Signature_________________________________ Date_____________________________________ University of Washington Abstract Middle Stone Age Lithic Study, South Africa: An Examination of Modern Human Origins Thomas J. Minichillo Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Professor Angela E. Close Department of Anthropology The Middle Stone Age began around 300,000 years ago and continued to around 35,000 years ago in Africa. During this period anatomically modern humans emerged in Africa. Also during this period increasingly sophisticated technological innovations and the earliest evidence for symbolic thought entered into the archaeological record. All of these events are critical for our understanding of modern human origins. This dissertation focuses on the Middle Stone Age from the Cape coast of southern Africa and presents new data from the region, helping to place this important period of our evolution in context. Table of Contents List of Figures........................................................................................................ iv List of Tables ....................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1: Modern Human Origins .........................................................................1 Modern Human Origins ...................................................................................... 2 Archaeology, Morphology, and Genetics ....................................................... 4 Location and Timing..................................................................................... 16 Behavioral Modernity ................................................................................... 22 Chapter 2: The Middle Stone Age .........................................................................28 MSA on the Cape Coast.................................................................................... 30 Coastal Caves................................................................................................ 30 Dune Field Sites............................................................................................ 31 Inland Rockshelters....................................................................................... 32 Buried Open Sites ......................................................................................... 33 Explanatory Frameworks for Interpreting the MSA......................................... 34 The Klasies Model ........................................................................................ 35 The Blombos Model ..................................................................................... 40 The Rapid Depositional Model for MSA Change ............................................ 45 Chapter 3: Faunal Resource Use and Behavioral Modernity.................................48 The Klein Argument ......................................................................................... 49 The Faunal Pattern ............................................................................................ 51 Buffalo and Eland Mortality ............................................................................. 51 Hunting Effectiveness....................................................................................... 52 General Critique................................................................................................ 54 Sample Size Critique..................................................................................... 55 Behavioral Ecological Modeling ...................................................................... 58 Diet Expansion Hypothesis........................................................................... 61 Resource Depletion Model ........................................................................... 63 Environmental Change.................................................................................. 65 Discussion and Conclusions ............................................................................. 66 Chapter 4: Lithic Foraging Strategies....................................................................79 Behavioral Ecology and Lithic Resource Use .................................................. 79 The Howiesons Poort Sub-stage ....................................................................... 80 Exotic not Non-Local........................................................................................ 82 Resource and Technological Intensification..................................................... 86 Time versus Distance........................................................................................ 87 Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................... 91 Chapter 5: The Still Bay ........................................................................................99 The Context of the Still Bay ............................................................................. 99 A Rock by Any Other Name....................................................................... 101 i Place and Time............................................................................................ 104 Still Bay Study Goals...................................................................................... 107 Site and Collection Descriptions..................................................................... 107 Blombos Cave............................................................................................. 107 Blombos Sands............................................................................................ 111 Blombos Schoolhouse................................................................................. 112 Cape Hangklip ............................................................................................ 112 Dale Rose Parlour ....................................................................................... 117 Hollow Rock Shelter................................................................................... 119 Kleinjongensfontein.................................................................................... 120 Skildergat (Peers Cave)............................................................................... 121 Composite Images........................................................................................... 124 Standard Measures of Still Bay Bifacial Points.............................................. 125 Evidence for Hafting................................................................................... 126 Evidence of Impact Fractures ..................................................................... 127 Bifacial Thinning Flakes................................................................................. 128 Discussion and Conclusion............................................................................. 130 Chapter 6: Additional Investigations of the Howieson’s Poort Shelter Collections...............................................................................................175 Purpose and Background of the Study............................................................ 175 An Alternative Interpretation.......................................................................... 178 A Singular Find............................................................................................... 180 Possible Wider Implications ........................................................................... 186 Summary and Conclusions ............................................................................. 187 Chapter 7: Lithic Artifacts from