Temple architecture in India (Outline map not to scale) 6 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE OST of the art and architectural remains that survive Today when we say 'temple' Mfrom Ancient and Medieval India are religious in in English we generally nature. That does not mean that people did not have art in mean a devalaya, devkula their homes at those times, but domestic dwellings and mandir, kovil, deol, the things in them were mostly made from materials like devasthanam or prasada wood and clay which have perished, or were made of metal depending on which part of India we are in. (like iron, bronze, silver and even gold) which was melted down and reused from time to time. This chapter introduces us to many types of temples from India. Although we have focussed mostly on Hindu temples, at the end of the chapter you will find some information on major Buddhist and Jain temples too. However, at all times, we must keep in mind that religious shrines were also made for many local cults in villages and forest areas, but again, not being of stone the ancient or medieval shrines in those areas have also vanished. Kandariya Mahadeo temple, Khajuraho THE BASIC FORM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE The basic form of the Hindu temple comprises the following: (i) a cave-like sanctum (garbhagriha literally ‘womb-house’), which, in the early temples, was a small cubicle with a single entrance and grew into a larger chamber in time. The garbhagriha is made to house the main icon which is itself the focus of much ritual attention; (ii) the entrance to the temple which may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a large number of worshippers and is known as a mandapa; (iii) from the fifth century CE onwards, freestanding temples tend to have a mountain- like spire, which can take the shape of a curving shikhar in North India and a pyramidal tower, called a vimana, in South India; (iv) the vahan, i.e., the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or dhvaj is placed axially before the sanctum. Two broad orders of temples in the country are known— Nagara in the north and Dravida in the south. At times, the Vesar style of temples as an independent style created through the selective 70 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART mixing of the Nagara and Dravida orders is mentioned by some scholars. Elaborate studies are available on the various sub-styles within these orders. We will look into the differences in the forms further on in this chapter. As temples grew more complex, more surfaces were created for sculpture through additive geometry, i.e., by adding more and more rhythmically projecting, symmetrical walls and niches, without breaking away from the fundamental plan of the shrine. SCULPTURE, ICONOGRAPHY AND ORNAMENTATION The study of images of deities falls within a branch of art history called ‘iconography’, which consists of identification of images based on certain symbols and mythologies associated with them. And very often, while the fundamental myth and meaning of the deity may remain the same for centuries, its specific usage at a spot can be a response to its local or immediate social, political or geographical context. Every region and period produced its own distinct style of images with its regional variations in iconography. The temple is covered with elaborate sculpture and ornament that form a fundamental part of its conception. The placement of an image in a temple is carefully planned: for instance, river goddesses (Ganga and Yamuna) are usually found at the entrance of a garbhagriha in a Nagara Kalasha temple, dvarapalas (doorkeepers) are usually found on the Amalaka gateways or gopurams of Dravida temples, similarly, mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (the nine auspicious planets) and yakshas are also placed at entrances to guard them. Various forms or aspects of the main divinity are to be found on the outer walls of the sanctum. The deities of Shikhara directions, i.e., the ashtadikpalas face the eight key directions on the outer walls of the sanctum and/or on the outer walls of a temple. Subsidiary shrines around the main temple are dedicated to the family or incarnations of the main deity. Finally, various elements of ornamentation such as gavaksha, vyala/yali, kalpa-lata, amalaka, kalasha, etc. are used in distinct ways and places in a temple. Garbhagriha THE NAGARA OR NORTH INDIAN TEMPLE STYLE The style of temple architecture that became popular in northern India is known as nagara. In North India it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform Pitha with steps leading up to it. Further, unlike in South India it does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways. While the earliest temples had just one tower, or Nagara temple TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 71 shikhara, later temples had several. The garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower. There are many subdivisions of nagara temples depending on the shape of the shikhara. There are different names for the various parts of the temple in different parts of India; however, the most common name for the simple shikhara which is square at the base and whose walls curve or slope inward to a point on top is called the 'latina' or the rekha-prasada type of shikara. The second major type of architectural form in the nagara order is the phamsana. Phamsana buildings tend to be broader and shorter than latina ones. Their roofs are composed of several slabs that gently rise to a single point over the centre of the building, unlike the latina ones which look like sharply rising tall towers. Phamsana roofs do not curve inward, instead they slope upwards on a straight incline. In many North Indian temples you will notice that the phamsana design is used for the mandapas while the main garbhagriha is housed in a latina building. Later on, the latina buildings grew complex, and instead of appearing like a single tall tower, the temple began to support many smaller towers, which were clustered together like rising mountain-peaks with the tallest one being in the centre, and this was the one which was always above the garbhagriha. The third main sub-type of the nagara building is what is generally called the valabhi type. These are rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber. Sun temple, Konark 72 AN INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN ART The edge of this vaulted chamber is rounded, like the bamboo or wooden wagons that would have been drawn by bullocks in ancient times. They are usually called ‘wagon- vaulted buildings’. As mentioned above, the form of the temple is influenced by ancient building forms that were already in existence before the fifth century CE. The valabhi type of building was one of them. For instance, if you study the ground-plan of many of the Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves, you will notice that they are shaped as long halls which end in a curved back. From the inside, the roof of this portion also looks like a wagon-vaulted roof. Central India Ancient temples of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan share many traits. The most visible is that they are made of sandstone. Some of the oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta Period are in Madhya Pradesh. These are relatively modest-looking shrines each having four pillars that support a small mandapa which looks like a simple square porch-like extension before an equally small room that served as the garbhagriha. Importantly, of the two such temples that survive, one is at Udaigiri, which is on the outskirts of Vidisha and is part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines, while the other one is at Sanchi, which was a Buddhist site. This means that similar developments were being incorporated in the architecture of temples of both the religions. The patrons and donors of the temple at Deogarh (in Dashavtara Vishnu Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh) are unknown; however temple, Deogarh, on the basis of both architecture and imagery, it is fifth century CE Sheshashayana Vishnu, Dashavatara temple, Deogarh TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE 73 established that this temple was built in the early sixth century CE. That is, about a hundred years or so after the small temples we just learnt about in Sanchi and Udaigiri. This makes it a classic example of a late Gupta Period type of temple. This temple is in the panchayatana style of architecture where the main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four smaller subsidiary shrines at the four corners (making it a total number of five shrines, hence the name, panchayatana). The tall and curvilinear shikhara also corroborates this date. The presence of this curving latina or rekha-prasada type of shikhara also makes it clear that this is an early example of a classic nagara style of temple. Sheshashayana is the form of Vishnu where he is shown reclining on the sheshanaga called Ananta. Nara-Narayan shows the discussion between the human soul and the eternal divine. Gajendramoksha is the story of achieving moksha, symbolically communicated by Vishnu’s suppression of an asura who had taken the form of an elephant. This west-facing temple has a grand doorway with standing sculptures of female figures representing the Ganga on the left side and the Yamuna on the right side. The temple depicts Vishnu in various forms, due to which it was assumed that the four subsidiary shrines must also Vishwanatha temple, have housed Vishnu’s avatars and the temple was mistaken Khajuraho for a dasavatara temple.