Risk status of selected indigenous chicken breeds in Java, Indonesia: Challenges and opportunities for conservation Indrawati Yudha Asmara Bachelor of Animal Husbandry Master of Biology A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods Faculty of Engineering, Health, Science and the Environment Charles Darwin University Darwin, NT Australia February 2014 Contents Contents ......................................................................................................................... ii Declaration of Originality ............................................................................................... vi Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... vii List of Tables .................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................... xii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 2 1.1 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 2 1.2 Research Questions and Hypotheses ........................................................................... 3 1.3 Contribution of the Research ....................................................................................... 6 1.4 Thesis Structure ............................................................................................................ 6 2 Conceptual Perspective, Data Context and Case-study Background .............................. 8 2.1 Animal Genetic Resources ............................................................................................ 9 2.1.1 Importance of Animal Genetic Resources .......................................................... 10 2.1.2 Risk Status of Animal Genetic Resources ............................................................ 12 2.1.3 Estimating Risk Status......................................................................................... 13 2.1.4 Causes of Loss of Animal Genetic Resources ...................................................... 16 2.2 Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources ................................................................ 18 2.2.1 Conservation Justifications ................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 Unit of Conservation .......................................................................................... 20 2.2.3 Conservation Strategies and Methods ............................................................... 21 2.2.3.1 In-situ Conservation ..................................................................................... 21 2.2.3.2 Ex-situ Conservation .................................................................................... 24 2.2.4 Breeding Programmes in Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources ............... 25 2.3 Values of Animal Genetic Resources .......................................................................... 27 2.3.1 Animal Genetic Resources and the Concept of Total Economic Value ............... 28 2.3.2 The Economics of Animal Genetic Resource Erosion .......................................... 30 2.3.3 The Arguments for Economic Valuation ............................................................. 30 2.3.4 Methods for the Economic Valuation of Animal Genetic Resources .................. 31 2.3.4.1 Direct Methods ............................................................................................ 31 2.3.4.2 Indirect Methods ......................................................................................... 33 2.4 Case-study Background .............................................................................................. 35 2.4.1 Indonesia: An Overview...................................................................................... 35 2.4.2 Indonesian Poultry Industry ............................................................................... 37 2.4.3 Chicken Breeds in Indonesia ............................................................................... 41 2.4.3.1 Indigenous Chicken Breeds .......................................................................... 41 2.4.3.2 Case-study Breeds ....................................................................................... 44 2.4.4 Policies and Programmes ................................................................................... 50 2.4.4.1 Policies Supporting the Conservation of Indigenous Chicken Breeds ........... 50 2.4.4.2 National Programmes Aimed at Enhancing Chicken Production ................. 53 ii 3 Methodology ............................................................................................................ 57 3.1 General Approach and Conceptual Framework ......................................................... 58 3.1.1 Mixed-methods Approach .................................................................................. 58 3.1.2 Systems Thinking ................................................................................................ 59 3.1.3 Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................... 60 3.2 Estimation of Risk Status ............................................................................................ 63 3.2.1 Risk-status Estimation Based on Population Parameters ................................... 63 3.2.2 Risk-status Estimation Based on Alternative Approach ...................................... 65 3.2.3 Estimating Risk Status of the Case-study Breeds ................................................ 68 3.3 Characterisation of Production Systems .................................................................... 70 3.3.1 Classification of Production Systems .................................................................. 70 3.3.2 Aims of and Methods for Characterising Production Systems............................ 73 3.4 Non-market Valuation ................................................................................................ 75 3.4.1 Non-market Valuation Methods for Animal Genetic Resources ......................... 76 3.4.2 Contingent Valuation Method ............................................................................ 79 3.4.3 Foundations of a Willingness-to-accept Approach ............................................. 79 3.4.4 Format for Willingness-to-accept Elicitation ...................................................... 80 3.4.5 Factors Influencing Participation Decisions and Willingness to Accept .............. 82 3.5 Empirical Research Design, Data-collection Techniques and Ethics Consideration .... 83 3.5.1 Empirical Research Design .................................................................................. 83 3.5.2 Expert Interviews................................................................................................ 85 3.5.3 Key-informant Interviews ................................................................................... 86 3.5.4 Focus-group Discussions..................................................................................... 86 3.5.5 Survey: Face-to-face Interviews ......................................................................... 88 3.5.6 Ethics Considerations ......................................................................................... 89 3.6 Survey Instrument: The Questionnaire ...................................................................... 90 3.6.1 Socio-economic and Farm-system Data ............................................................. 90 3.6.1.1 The Socio-economic Characteristics of Households ..................................... 91 3.6.1.2 Production System and Breed Characteristics, and Production Objectives .................................................................................................... 91 3.6.1.3 Market Activities and Breeder Organisations .............................................. 94 3.6.2 Contingent Valuation ......................................................................................... 94 3.6.3 Estimation of Risk Status .................................................................................... 97 3.7 Survey Implementation .............................................................................................. 99 3.7.1 Pilot Study to Test Questionnaire ....................................................................... 99 3.7.2 Enumerator Training ........................................................................................ 101 3.7.3 Description of Sampling Area, Sampling Technique and Data-collection Procedure ......................................................................................................... 102 3.7.3.1 Description of Sampling Area .................................................................... 102 3.7.3.2 Sampling Technique .................................................................................. 104 3.7.3.3 Data-collection Procedure