The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School Department of Art History THE HADRIANIC TONDI ON THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: NEW PERSPECTIVES ON THE EASTERN PARADIGMS A Dissertation in Art History by Gerald A. Hess © 2011 Gerald A. Hess Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2011 The dissertation of Gerald A. Hess was reviewed and approved* by the following: Elizabeth Walters Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Associate Professor of Art History Brian Curran Professor of Art History Craig Zabel Associate Professor of Art History Head, Department of Art History Donald Redford Professor of Classics and Mediterranean Studies *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. ii Abstract This dissertation is a study of the impact of eastern traditions, culture, and individuals on the Hadrianic tondi. The tondi were originally commissioned by the emperor Hadrian in the second century for an unknown monument and then later reused by Constantine for his fourth century arch in Rome. Many scholars have investigated the tondi, which among the eight roundels depict scenes of hunting and sacrifice. However, previous Hadrianic scholarship has been limited to addressing the tondi in a general way without fully considering their patron‘s personal history and deep seated motivations for wanting a monument with form and content akin to the prerogatives of eastern rulers and oriental princes. In this dissertation, I have studied Hadrian as an individual imbued with wisdom about the cultural and ruling traditions of both Rome and the many nations that made up the vast Roman realm of the second century. I have determined that the tondi iii reflect this knowledge in that for the first time in an imperial public state relief they commemorated the virtues of the emperor in a language derived from Hadrian‘s personal experiences and beliefs. The tondi include the Bithynian youth Antinous. It is with Hadrian‘s fellowship with this Greek youth that a more nuanced understanding of the tondi resides. The tondi were a means to communicate Hadrian‘s and Antinous‘ heroic exploits in the hunt——a theme that was utterly new in Roman imperial artistic context yet very much part of the personae of monarchs from eastern Royal Societies. The layers of meaning in the tondi even extended to the educational. They were not only public instruction about a strong, virtuous ruler; they were a manifestation of paideia, Greek education for the cultured elite. Part of this cultural education was to develop one‘s own worth, but it was also to introduce and involve youth in all the noble pursuits that made a man. The hunt gave public face to Antinous while at the same time commemorated Hadrian‘s intellectual, moral, and physical authority iv to rule. In my study, I also provide numerous examples of Hadrian‘s beneficence to the provinces. His legendary tireless journeys to the farthest reaches of the empire often saw him in some of the provinces on more than one occasion, especially his most beloved Greece— —Hadrian‘s devotion to Greek culture was equally renowned. By establishing a record of Hadrian‘s patronage in the most favored provinces this study legitimizes Hadrian‘s willingness to take the unprecedented leap in giving visual expression to ideas rooted in foreign philosophies. The round form of the tondi is also of great significance. I have offered the possibility that clipei virtuti, coins and medallions, and Roman marble oscilla served as prototypes for the tondi. Not only did they serve as sources for the tondi‘s round format, but they also had inherent meanings and traditions, which Hadrian appropriated and applied to the tondi. The Hadrianic tondi were not the result of any one conception. They were the product of the most v educated Roman emperor‘s life course. This dissertation is a study of the tondi and their patron, and how they reflected him in an entirely new way. They were at once and the same time, historical reliefs, imperial currency, religious proclamations, and personal testaments. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………………viii List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………………………x Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………1 Chapter 2: Sources: The Tondi and the Arch of Constantine………………………………………………………………………………………………………20 Chapter 3: A Cosmopolitan Man………………………………………………………41 The Travels…………………………………………………………………………………………41 Favored Provinces…………………………………………………………………………51 Greece………………………………………………………………………………………………………70 Antinous…………………………………………………………………………………………………91 Chapter 4: The Tondi and the Hunting Tradition………111 Egypt………………………………………………………………………………………………………124 The Near East…………………………………………………………………………………135 The Greek World……………………………………………………………………………144 The Roman Tradition…………………………………………………………………150 Chapter 5: The Round Format…………………………………………………………178 Chapter 6: Conclusions………………………………………………………………………213 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………………………222 vii Acknowledgements Many people have been supportive of this dissertation. First, I would like to thank my dissertation advisor Dr. Elizabeth J. Walters, without whom this project would not have been possible. Her guidance and advice on the content were foundational to the success of the entire work. Dr. Walter‘s professional and personal integrity are rare and have been truly inspirational. She was always supportive of my ideas and interest in the Hadrianic tondi. She never failed to share in and encourage my enthusiasm for the monuments. No words here can fully express my gratitude to her for all that she has done to aid me throughout this long process. I would also like to recognize my other committee members. I thank Dr. Craig Zabel and the Department of Art History. Without Dr. Zabel‘s patience and backing, the final dissertation would not have been possible. Dr. Brian Curran‘s perspective and input on the manuscript were invaluable and greatly contributed to its final production. Dr. Jeanne Porter was also a viii valuable member of my committee in its early stages, and I thank her for her contributions. Lastly, I thank Dr. Donald Redford for participating as a member of my panel. His vast knowledge of the ancient world, especially ancient Egypt, was extremely helpful and brought a fundamentally important viewpoint to my dissertation. I would also like to express my gratitude to other friends and mentors. Dr. Hellmut Hager has been a friend and supporter of mine for many years. He has been an ever-present example of scholarly excellence to me and generations of art historians. I also thank Dr. Susan Scott. Dr. Scott‘s friendship, advocacy, and insights were of great help in all stages of my work. A last word of thanks goes out to Christine Butts, Deana Bryan, and Cory Kurzinger. I cannot thank them enough for all they have done for me, not to mention countless others throughout the years. ix List of Figures The figures are available on file at the Department of Art History, 240 Borland Building, The Pennsylvania State University. 1. Arch of Constantine, (North), Rome. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 2. Arch of Constantine (South), Rome. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 3. North side tondi, Arch of Constantine: Boar Hunt, Sacrifice to Apollo. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 4. North side tondi, Arch of Constantine: Lion Hunt, Sacrifice to Hercules. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 5. South side tondi, Arch of Constantine: Departure, Sacrifice to Silvanus. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 6. South side tondi, Arch of Constantine: Bear Hunt, Sacrifice to Diana. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur x Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 7. Departure tondo, Arch of Constantine. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 8. Sacrifie to Silvanus tondo, Arch of Constantine. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 9. Bear hunt tondo, Arch of Constantine. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 10. Sacrifice to Diana tondo, Arch of Constantine. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur Spatantiken Kunstgeschichte 10. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter & Co., 1939. 11. Boar Hunt, Arch of Constantine. Reproduced in H.P. L'Orange, and A. Von Gerkan. Der Spatantike Bildschmuck des Konstantinsbogen, Studien zur