The role of simulations in the authentic learning for national security policy development Implications for practice Dr. Henk Eijkman National Security College Occasional Paper No 4 May 2012 A joint initiative of the Commonwealth Government and The Australian National University Simulations in authentic learning: a framework for practice NSC National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Author: Eijkman, Henk, 1948- Title: The role of simulations in the authentic learning for national security policy development: Implications for Practice / Dr. Henk Simon Eijkman. [electronic resource] ISBN: 9780987221087 (ebook : pdf) Series: National Security College occasional paper (Online), 4. Notes: Includes bibliographical references. Subjects: National security--Australia. Education--Pedagogy Australia--Politics and government--21st century. Other Authors/Contributors: Australian National University. National Security College. Dewey Number: 355.030994 Editors: Dr David Connery Email address: [email protected] Published and distributed by: Leading Edge Learning National Security College Building 69, 5 Liversidge St Australian National University, Acton ACT 0200 T: (02) 6125 6480 E: [email protected] W: http://nsc.anu.edu.au/ National Security College, ANU 2 Simulations in authentic learning: a framework for practice NSC The role of simulations in the authentic learning of national security policy development: Implications for Practice National Security College, ANU 3 Simulations in authentic learning: a framework for practice NSC Acknowledgements Special thanks are due to the senior staff of the National Security College both for their vision for this project and for inviting me to prepare a contribution. I am particularly grateful to Dr David Connery. Dr Henk Eijkman May 2012 National Security College, ANU 4 About the Author Dr Henk Eijkman is currently an independent consultant as well as visiting fellow at the University of New South Wales at the Australian Defence Force Academy and is Visiting Professor of Academic Development, Annasaheb Dange College of Engineering and Technology in India. As a sociologist he developed an active interest in tertiary learning and teaching with a focus on socially inclusive innovation and culture change. He has taught at various institutions in the social sciences and his work as an adult learning specialist has taken him to South Africa, Malaysia, Palestine, and India. He publishes widely in international journals, serves on Conference Committees and editorial boards of edited books and international journals. CONTENTS Glossary 8 Executive summary 9 Introduction 12 Preface 12 The report’s methodology 17 PART I: AUTHENTIC LEARNING IN POST-GRADUATE HIGHER EDUCATION 20 1.1 Authentic learning in policy development in a postmodern world 20 1.1.1 From teacher to learner-centred practice 20 1.1.2 Learning paradigms and their impact 24 1.1.3 Authentic learning as postmodernist practice 29 1.1.4 The experiential-authentic learning continuum 33 1.1.5 Defining authentic learning 35 1.1.6 The development of authentic learning as a practice 38 1.1.7 Key attributes of authentic learning 42 PART II: THE ROLE OF SIMULATION/GAMING IN APPLIED POLICY DEVLOPMENT 47 2.1 Introduction 47 2.1.2 Key concepts and definitions 51 2.2 Simulation methods in public policy development 58 2.2.1 Simulations as a high-end authentic learning method 58 2.2.2 Simulations: powerful learning in messy policy complexities 60 2.2.3 Simulations: a seriously powerful learning method 63 2.2.4 Framing the policy simulation discourse 68 2.3 Simulation methods in public and national security policy development 76 2.3.1 Simulations in public policy development 76 2.3.2 Simulations in national security policy development 91 2.3.3 The implications of simulations 101 2.4 The roles of technology 109 2.4.1 The roles of digital technology in simulations 109 2.5 Assessing learning effectiveness in simulations 127 2.5.1 The assessment of learning in simulations 127 PART III RECOMMENDATIONS 139 3.1 Recommendations 139 PART IV REFERENCES 146 References: Part I 147 References: Part II 160 Simulations in authentic learning: a framework for practice NSC PART V ANNEXURES 178 Part: I 178 Annexure 1.1: An evidence-based checklist for authentic learning 178 Part: II 181 Annexure 2.1: Characteristics of Complex Adaptive Systems 181 Annexure 2.2: Public policymaking as a game 182 Annexure 2.3: Taxonomy of Serious Games 183 Annexure 2.4: Classifying serious games 184 Annexure 2.5: Simulations and the 5 Cs of the policy process 185 Annexure 2.6: Design considerations of policy simulations 186 Annexure 2.7: In-house organisational policy simulations 191 Annexure 2.8: SIIRAN: A Simulation of Complex Negotiations 193 Annexure 2.9: Sample Foreign Policy Crisis Simulation Syllabus 202 Annexure 2.10: Readings for national security specific simulations 206 Annexure 2.11: Game web links 208 Annexure 2.12: Case study: The Press Briefing 211 National Security College, ANU 7 As with any discipline, education too has its own terminology. Glossary While this Summary Report aims to make the case for authentic learning in ways fully intelligible to those not familiar with educational terminology, this glossary will assist readers to explore key issues in the wider educational literatures. Term Definition Authentic Learning in environments that immerse learners in learning research into, and the collaborative solving of, complex real world problems open to multiple responses Constructivism An approach to learning that gives primacy to research-oriented activities that enable learners to construct knowledge themselves rather than having to accept knowledge generated by others Epistemology Refers to the different explanatory principles we construct about the nature of knowledge: how we come to know, what ways of knowing are privileged & disprivileged, and the legitimate methods for making valid knowledge claims (Bryant & Usher, 1997; Gubba, & Lincoln, 1994). Experiential An approach to learning and teaching that rejects learning learning ‘by telling’ in favour of ‘learning by doing’ which may to various degrees be linked to real-world practices Foundationalism Two opposed ways of thinking about knowledge & and anti- learning. Foundationalism assumes all knowledge foundationalism reflects an objective reality making knowledge universally true and valid. Anti or non- foundationalism claims that all knowledge is socially constructed by specific communities and so reflects their cultural perspectives and languages. Knowledge construction (learning) is therefore a communal activity and even when learning is individual its goal is always social; to become a competent member of a community Modernism An intellectual movement that originated in the era of (European) ‘Enlightenment’ and characterised by belief in the homogeneity of the universe and in rational scientific progress Positivism A ‘Modernist’ theoretical framework focused on the discovery of objective and universally valid ‘truths’ in the service of human progress Postmodernism A ‘Post-Enlightenment’ theoretical framework, opposed to modernism because it is based on the socio-cultural construction of ‘reality’ with all its complexities and uncertainties Simulations Broadly defined as inquiry-based, virtual or face- to-face, high-end experiential learning activities that expose learners to the complex realities and demands of work-like environments such as in scenario-based research-led learning. Simulations in authentic learning: a framework for practice NSC Executive summary The National Security College of the Australian National University (‘the College’) has commissioned this report to examine the following areas: 1. The place of authentic learning in postgraduate education. 2. The methods used to simulate policy development, and related activities like strategy planning, in educational environments relevant to national security policy-making. 3. Policy simulation methods that could enhance learning at the College and similar institutions, including teaching skills, technology and resource implications. 4. The roles of technology in enhancing learning in policy development simulations. 5. Ways to assess learning effectiveness through simulation. The aim of this report is therefore to provide the College with an evidence-based case and examples of practice that illustrate the use of authentic learning and simulations in post-graduate and on-campus learning environments relevant to applied national security policy education. This report presents the findings of a literature review alongside a set of selected examples of authentic and simulation-based learning. The main conclusions are as follows. There is a place for authentic learning in postgraduate education Although authentic learning is widely taken up in many western education systems, there is little by way of a systematic and consistent institution-wide deployment in higher education, especially in Australia. This ad hoc and random approach is even more evident in regards to the use of simulations as a high-end form of authentic practice. The simulation and gaming literature recognises Australian scholars more by their absence (See for example the last five years in Simulation & Gaming1). The lack of take-up in Australia, particularly at post-graduate level, is also marked. Resistance to change is coupled with—or makes use of—a cultural ethos among university academics that rejects ‘hands-on’ experiential and authentic forms