Role Name Affiliation National Coordinator Subject Coordinator Paper Coordinator Prof. Edward Rodrigues Centre for the Study of Social Systems Jawaharlal Nehru University Content Writer Rajula Shah Department of Sociology University of Mumbai Content Reviewer Prof.Edward Rodrigues Centre for the Study of Social Systems Jawaharlal Nehru University Language Editor Prof.Edward Rodrigues Centre for the Study of Social Systems Jawaharlal Nehru University Technical Conversion Module Structure Description of the Module Items Description of the Module Subject Name Sociology Paper Name Religion & Society Module Name/Title SECTS AND CULTS Module Id Module no. 12 Pre Requisites An understanding of divisions within major religious traditions Objectives This module seeks to analyze the historical context of the rise of sectarianism in sociology. We will look at the typology of various sects, cultic movements, and finally concentrate on sectarian and cultic movements within Hinduism as well as outside Hinduism. Key words Religion, Sect, Cult, Typology, Hinduism, Christianity, Religious Schisms. Religion and Society Module 12: Sects and Cults Introduction Religious sects and cults are becoming more and more prominent thereby gathering interest from sociologists in recent past. The decades post World War II and particularly the late 1960s and early 1970s, enormous variety of sects, cults and movements emerged that the Western world witnessed, thereby attracting media as well as academic attention. For Hamilton (2001), sects are in many ways religious experiments, as it offers the sociologists opportunities to study religiosity in its purest forms, without the complexities of motive, organization and doctrine that characterizes the long established churches and denominations. There are many misconceptions as well, as in common parlance, sects are usually associated with the Christian tradition. One of the reasons for this generalization could be the initial research done on the topic from a very Western perspective, in an overwhelmingly Christian context. However, this is not an entire, correct picture. Sects within the Christian tradition is but one of the cases. Sects are known to have emerged and grown in countries with one or more great religious traditions. It is popularly understood that since sects are separated groups, they tend to exist within or at the fringe of all the major religions. However, the concept of the sect should be understood in the context of the organizational structure of different parent religions. For instance, in a diffused, uncentralized and pluralist religious tradition liked Hinduism, sectarianism exists only in a much more limited sense than in Christendom. Within Hinduism, there have been diverse traditions of worship as well as many divergent philosophical schools that have existed side by side for centuries. What sects connote for Christian movements, may not be relevant for those outside the Christian tradition (Wilson, 1970) and particularly when one talks about sects within Hinduism. Christianity no doubt has a degree of centralization, specifically the Roman Catholicism. This centralization and coherence influences the structure and organizational character of the sects emerging out of it. Nevertheless, sects are largely separated and voluntary minority religious movements, of course within the context of larger religions. Although many scholars consider deprivation, of various kinds, as an important factor for sectarian proliferation, religious sects and movements are often much more than mere such responses. Besides mere transcendental solutions to problems, they provide real concrete benefits in the world and life. They successfully provide a sense of identity, community, self- respect and essentially social support for meaningfully interpreting their situation (Hamilton, 2001). Thus, the benefits received are not just in terms of material, but non-material ones as well. This feature makes sects and cults even more appealing. It is truly acknowledged that sects and cults are extremely diverse, complex and resulting from differential cultural conditions. It is therefore not possible to present an account of all the unique features of innumerable sects and cults in a global context. However, an attempt is made to understand the nature of these sects and cults, why and how they emerge, the amount of influence they exert, functions they perform, changes, if at all, they might undergo and so on. It is also intended to have an overview of some individual sects and cults in the present scenario. This module also highlights certain sects and cults within Hinduism particularly to understand the sectarian diversity in the Indian context. Historical Context of Sociology of Sectariansim When we look at the Christian tradition from certain historical period, Ernst Troeltsch can be seen as a pioneer in the sociological study of sectarianism. He followed his teacher-cum- friend Max Weber in his characterization of the nature of the sect in relation to the Church. Weber characterized the Church as a religious institution as well as political association that holds power in order to maintain order. The sect, whereas, is a voluntary association, not making any claims to regulate the religious lives and behaviour of its members. According to Weber, sects usually tend to develop into churches. Troeltsch, although accepted this general analysis of Weber, however developed this typology further to its fullest early conceptualization. According to the theologian Troeltsch’s understanding of the distinctions between Church and sect, the former is considered highly conservative institution, which largely accepts the secular order and seeks to dominate the masses. The sect, however, is a small grouping which aspires to an inward perfection and aims at direct personal fellowship between its members. As it renounces any idea of dominating the world, interestingly, sects spring from the lower classes or the oppressed (Hamilton, 2001). From the point of view of the Church, these sects are seen as departures or rather deviations from true Christianity. But from the point of view of the sects, they tend to challenge the Church’s claim as a sole dispenser of sacramental grace. Therefore, for Troeltsch, the sects were largely protest movements (Johnstone, 2011). H. Richard Niebuhr, in 1929, posits that the sect is an unstable type of religious organization which, through time, tends to be transformed into a church.According to him, there is an endless cycle of birth, transformation, schism, and rebirth of religious movements (Stark and Bainbridge, 1979). He also added denomination as a further category for classifying types of religious organization to the typology. A denomination can be seen as a mediating position between the church and the sect (Johnstone, 2011). He saw sectarianism as a product of increased division and differentiation in society. In his view, the sect was not capable to survive for long. The sect, according to him, would eventually become a denomination, or even a Church. His views have been debated by theorists like Wilson (1990) who pointed out the uniqueness of the American context that was allegedly overlooked by Niebuhr(Hamilton, 2001).Niebuhr's theory exclusively concerns schismatic religious movements, whichhe identifies as sects (Stark and Bainbridge, 1979).J. Milton Yinger gives an interesting discussion on the differing relationship of sect and Church to the world. Yinger has distinguished two subtypes within the category of “church”. At one extreme there is the Universal Church – all-embracing with zero tolerance for religious competition. At the other extreme, the subtype of church was given the designation ecclesia (Greek, church) by Leopold von Wiese and Howard Becker (Johnstone, 2011). Further, Yinger calls for an ‘established sect’ (others refer to it as institutionalized sect), where a sect takes on less sectarian and more Church-like character in order to win a substantial following. Bryan Wilson (1970) further contributes by characterizing the sect as a voluntary association with a strong sense of self-identity. The sect is exclusive, whose membership depends upon merit or some kind of qualification (Hamilton, 2001). Typology of Sects Sects are very varied and diverse in character. The pattern of sect development may vary according to type of sect. In order to understand such relationships and processes, a typology of sects is required. The best typology to date, however within a very western context(Christian) and somewhat rudimentary, is that of Bryan Wilson (1970). According to him, in general, sects tend to arise as a result of ‘stresses and tensions differentially experienced within the total society’ (p. 31). Wilson’s typology is based on the ‘kind of response to the world’ that the sect adopts – a world is seen as less than satisfactory and which it is hoped to transcend in some way. As a matter of response to the world, it covers doctrine, style of organization, way of life, etc. What follows is a brief understanding of his types. At the beginning we see Conversionist sects that emphasise evangelism and conversion of individuals to the ideals of the sect by inducing a religious awakening in them. The process of experiencing conversion, rather than rituals and ceremonies, is often considered essential for salvation. Examples include the Salvation Army and the various Pentecostal movements. Next in his list are the Revolutionist or Adventist sects that believe in the imminent (approaching)