437 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXXV N° 3-4, mei-augustus 2018 438 IRANICA DAFTARY, F. — A History of Shi῾i Islam. (The Institute of Ismaili Studies, Shi῾i Heritage Series, 1). I.B. Tauris, London & New York, 2013. (24 cm, XIX, 315). ISBN 978-1-78076-841-0). £ 29.50. An increasing number of books have been published on Shiism in the last few decades, especially after the 1979 Islamic Revolution in Iran. A doyen of Shia Studies in the broadest sense, Dr Farhad Daftary’s publications have cer- tainly enriched and broadened our knowledge of this field. The book under review, consisting of six chapters, is another of his many outstanding publications on Shiism. Chapter One (Introduction: Progress in the Study of Shi῾i Islam, pp. 1-24) is an essential and enlightening survey of Shia studies. There are 1.3 billion Muslims in the world, of whom some 200 million, or 15%, are Shiites. Their con- tribution to the intellectual, artistic and cultural achievements of Islamic civilizations has been greater than that figure would suggest. Shia dynasties such as the Buyids, Fatimids, Hamdanids, Safawids and other smaller dynasties have played a cardinal role in creating the diversity of religiosity in the world of Islam. The author gives a concise overview of European perceptions and appreciation of Shiism in medi- eval times, such as fascination with the “Old Man of the Mountain,” Hasan-i Sabbah (d. 1124). The scientific assess- ment of Shiism in Europe starts with orientalists such as Baron A.I. Silvestre de Sacy (1758-1838), a Professor of Arabic who became the chair of Persian Studies in Collège de France in 1806. Daftary points out that the first studies of Shiism were based mainly on Arabic texts written by Sunni authors, which were interpreted within Christian parameters, with the effect that Sunnism was seen as ‘orthodoxy’ while Shiism was perceived as heterodoxy or heresy. Daftary con- vincingly shows that this Sunni-centered study of Islam was prominent until the late twentieth century, giving a one- dimensional view of Islam in the West. Daftary refers to 439 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — IRANICA 440 prestigious projects such as the Encyclopaedia of Islam, ghulat, the ‘exaggerators,’ who also fought for the Shia which has been a standard work on Islam. The first edition cause. In the last part of this chapter, Daftary devotes his was published in English, French and German during 1913- attention to the central doctrine of the imamate, involving 1938, and the second edition appeared between 1954 and principles such as divine appointment, infallibility, and the 2004. Daftary rightly says that the attention given to the Shi- unique possession of special religious knowledge, which is ites and their world views in the second edition “did not fare divinely inspired and transmitted by the preceding Imam. much better even though numerous Shi῾i texts had become Chapter Three, “The Ithna῾asharis or Twelvers” (pp. 57-­ available in the interim period” (p. 17). The Encyclopaedia 104), focuses on the doctrines, beliefs and rituals of this Iranica and the Encyclopaedia Islamica have brought more major stream of Shiism. An essential doctrine of the Twelvers balance in this scholarship. Despite this criticism, the is the necessity of the earthly presence of an Imam at all author emphasizes the invaluable contributions of scholars times. This requires asserting the existence of a twelfth such as Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918), Ignaz Goldziher Imam, who vanished but did not die, who is now invisibly (1850-1921), Rudolf Strothmann (1877-1960), and Dwight present and will return (raj῾a) visibly as the Mahdi. The M. ­Donaldson (1884-1976). Shiism was also studied with world could never remain without an imam. After the death reference to its spiritual elements, side-by-side with Sufism, of each imam, his followers are subdivided into a dozen by scholars such as Louis Massignon (1883-1962), Paul groups. Daftary’s description of the early formative period is Kraus (1904-1944) and Henry Corbin (1903-1978). The articulate, extremely precise, and a pleasure to read. He increase in studies on Shiism outside Iran starts with the explains how the death of the eleventh imam initiated a 1979 Islamic Revolution led by Ayatollah Khumayni (1902- period of confusion (hayra) that lasted for several decades. 1989). New generations of Iranian and Western scholars, A group of Shiites claimed that five years before the death notably Etan Kohlberg, H. Algar, A. Newman, R. Cleave, of the eleventh Imam, a son named Muhammad was born to M. Momen, Said Amir Arjomand, J. van Ess, W. Madelung, him, and that the child, who had his father’s designation as Seyyed Hossein Nasr, and M.A. Amir-Moezzi have contrib- his successor, was kept hidden for fear of Abbasid persecu- uted pioneering works on various aspects of Shiism. tion. Thus Imam Muhammad succeeded his father in 874 Chapter Two “The Origins and Early History of Shi῾i while remaining in occultation. Soon the Shia faithful began Islam” (pp. 25-56), examines various theories of the convo- to identify this imam as the Mahdi, which implied that he luted origins of Shiism. Referring to the crisis of succession would not be succeeded by any other Imam and that this was to the Prophet Mohammad, Daftary describes how Abu Bakr the end of the Twelver line of Imams. This period is one of (r. 632-634) was chosen as the leader of the Islamic com- the most confusing parts of Shia history. To fill the leader- munity. After him, ῾Umar (r. 634-644) and then ῾Uthman ship gap, several influential leaders took charge of the affairs (r. 644-656) became caliphs. All of them belonged to the of the community. These agents, known variously as “emis- influential Meccan tribe of Quraysh. ῾Ali ibn Abi Talib sary (safir), deputy (na᾿ib), agent (wakil) or gate (bab)” were (r. 656-661), belonging to the prophet’s own clan of Banu believed to be “intermediaries between the hidden imam and Hashim within the Quraysh, was the Prophet’s son-in-law his community” (p. 64). From the tenth century onwards, the and cousin. A group of ῾Ali’s friends and supporters believed amount of four such intermediaries was recognized, each that ῾Ali was more qualified to lead the Islamic community designating his own successor on the instruction of the Hid- than the other three caliphs. These supporters were called den Imam. The period between the death of Imam al-῾Askari Shi῾at ῾Ali (the ‘Party of ῾Ali’). ῾Ali himself was also con- (d. 874) and the death of the fourth emissary in 941 is called vinced of his legitimate claim to lead the community, based the ‘lesser occultation’ (al-ghayba al-sughra) in contrast to on his kinship, his knowledge of Islam and his merits in the the ‘greater occultation’ (al-ghayba al-kubra), from 941 till cause of Islam. The supporters of ῾Ali also referred to several the present. This is the period in which the Mahdi has chosen reports that Muhammad had appointed ῾Ali as his successor. not to have a representative. The Mahdi lives a prolonged life At Ghadir Khumm on 16 March 632, the Prophet returning and the Shiites await his return. His titles include the ‘lord from his journey from Mecca stopped the caravan, took of the age’ (sahib al-zaman), the ‘expected imam’ (al-imam ῾Ali’s hand and said: ‘He of whom I am the patron, ῾Ali is al-muntazar) or the ‘remnant of God’ (baqiyyat Allah) also his patron.’ Moreover, the Shiites believed that Islam (p. 67). has an inner truth that cannot be understood by human rea- Daftary continues his lucid description of Shia history son. Therefore a religious guide is needed to succeed the from the tenth century to the invasion of the Mongols in the Prophet, who can interpret this inner side and give a full thirteenth century in a separate section. During this period, understanding of Islam. Soon ῾Ali’s opponents started to Shia learning was consolidated in various chief centers such speak of din ῾Ali or ῾Ali’s religion, to which ῾Ali protested as the city of Qumm (Qom). It was here that the earliest that he represented the religion of Muhammad. While ῾Ali comprehensive collections of the sayings and teachings of recognized the leadership of Abu Bakr, his wife Fatima was the Twelver Imams were systematically compiled, based on involved in an inheritance dispute with Abu Bakr over an subject matter. The al-Kafi fi ῾ilm al-din (‘The One who is estate owned by the Prophet. Daftary also refers to the exclu- Competent in Religious Science’) is one of the earliest com- sion of ῾Ali from important positions during the reign of the pendia still in use. It was written by Muhammad b. Ya῾qub first two Caliphs. While ῾Ali played a prominent part in al-Kulayni (d. 940). This eight-volume book is one of the many battles during the time of the Prophet, he did not par- four canonical collections of Traditions (hadith), known as ticipate in the later battles of conquest. Daftary describes al-kutub al-arba῾a, dealing with Imami theology and juris- how Shiites survived after ῾Ali’s murder and how his sons prudence. Qumm was also the birth town of Ibn Babawayh Hasan and Husayn fought against the Umayyads. The author (known as al-Shaykh al-Saduq, d. 991) who wrote the second gives ample attention to the doctrines and ideologies of sev- major compilation of Imami hadith, Man la yahduruhu eral early Shia movements such as the Kaysaniyya and the ’l-faqih (‘He Who Has No Jurist in his Proximity’).