Exploring Telepresence in Virtual Worlds Dan Zhang z3378568 A thesis in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Information Systems and Technology Management UNSW Business School March 2018 PLEASE TYPE THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname or Family name: Zhang First name: Dan Other name/s: Abbreviation for degree as given in the University calendar: PhD School: School of Information Systems and Technology Management Faculty: UNSW Business School Title: Exploring telepresence in virtual worlds Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) Virtual worlds, as the computer-based simulated environments incorporating various representations of real-world elements, have great potential to not only transform the structures and operation modes of various industries but also change the way people work, do business, learn, play, and communicate. However, the existing sharp distinctions between virtual worlds and the real world also bring critical challenges. To address these challenges, the concept of telepresence—the user’s feeling of ‘being there’ in the virtual environments—is adopted as it is considered a direct and essential consequence of a virtual world’s reality. To cultivate this feeling, it is essential to understand what factors can lead to telepresence. However, some literature gaps on telepresence antecedents impede the understanding of telepresence antecedents and affect the adoption of the telepresence construct in the design of virtual worlds. To address these issues, this study explores the concept of telepresence in the context of virtual worlds. Specifically, by adopting means-end chain (MEC) theory, the study aims to investigate the antecedents of telepresence; to reveal the inter-relationships among these antecedents by building a hierarchical structure; and to develop an innovative approach for user segmentation to understand in-depth individual differences in perceiving telepresence. To achieve these objectives, the laddering interview technique was adopted to collect qualitative data from 25 participants. Analysis of the data identified 21 antecedents of telepresence. Based on their inter-relationships, a hierarchical structure was developed to capture the process of cultivating telepresence. Moreover, three types of users with distinctive paths leading to telepresence were classified. This study contributes to both the virtual world research and the telepresence literature and develops a new and meaningful user segmentation method. Finally, this study provides sufficient information and helpful guidelines to practitioners on the design and improvement of virtual worlds for a better user experience. Declaration relating to disposition of project thesis/dissertation I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstracts International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). ………………………………………… ………………………………………… ………………………………………… Signature Witness Signature Date The University recognises that there may be exceptional circumstances requiring restrictions on copying or conditions on use. Requests for restriction for a period of up to 2 years must be made in writing. Requests for a longer period of restriction may be considered in exceptional circumstances and require the approval of the Dean of Graduate Research. FOR OFFICE USE ONLY Date of completion of requirements for Award: i Originality Statement I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. ii iii Acknowledgements The completion of this dissertation is based on tremendous help and support from some very important people. I wish to express my appreciation to each of them. I would like to express my foremost gratitude to my supervisor – Associate Professor Zixiu Guo, for all the support and encouragement provided by her during my doctoral study. She has spent generous time and energy on supervising me to complete the dissertation from developing the research proposal at the beginning to finalizing the dissertation. I have learned a lot from her, not only on the valuable research method and research experience but also on the optimistic attitude towards life and work. Without her, I wouldn’t have overcome the difficulties during my doctoral study and finished this dissertation. I am also truly grateful to my co-supervisor, Associated Professor John D’Ambra, for his effort and patience on helping and supporting me during my doctoral study. I also would like to thank my colleagues in the School of Information Systems and Technology Management at UNSW and my previous supervisor for my Master’s degree, Professor Runhui Lin and his team at Nankai University. They are all outstanding researchers, who have provided me very constructive suggestion and generous support for my study. I am full of gratitude to my parents, who are the best parents in the world. They provide me their all-enduring and selfless love and respect all my decisions, especially the one on pursuing a PhD degree in Australia. Their company and support helped me to fulfil my dreams. I am also deeply grateful to my grandparents and all the other family members for their understanding and encouragement. I would like to thank all my friends, in China, Australia, and other countries. The joy and encouragement given by them has accompanied me for completing my doctoral study and left me unforgettable memories. iv Table of Contents Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ v List of Tables .................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ................................................................................................................. xi List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................... xii Abstract ......................................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background to the Study ......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Rationale .................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Research Aims and Questions ................................................................................. 5 1.4 Research Significance ............................................................................................. 6 1.5 Organisation of the Thesis ....................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................ 9 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 9 2.2 Understanding the Core Construct of Telepresence .............................................. 10 2.2.1 Telepresence Explicated ................................................................................. 10 2.2.2 The Importance of the Telepresence Construct .............................................. 26 2.2.3 Summary ......................................................................................................... 35 2.3 Understanding the Context of Virtual Worlds ...................................................... 35 2.3.1 The Definitions and Common Characteristics of Virtual Worlds .................. 35 2.3.2 Current Applications and the Significance of Virtual Worlds ........................ 42 2.3.3 Research Significance and Current Study Trends in Virtual Worlds ............. 47 2.3.4 Summary ......................................................................................................... 54 2.4 Linking the Construct with the Context—Telepresence as a Solution for the Challenges of Virtual Worlds ...................................................................................... 54 2.5 Understanding Factors Leading to Telepresence .................................................. 56 2.5.1 Steuer’s Classical Model of Telepresence Antecedents ................................