Minority Language Survival: Obsolescence or Survival for Welsh in the Face of English Dominance?1 Enlli Môn Thomas and Virginia C. Mueller Gathercole University of Wales, Bangor 1. Introduction Cymraeg, Welsh, is one of the two surviving languages that formed the Brythonic branch of the Celtic family of languages. All of the four modern Celtic languages–Welsh, Breton (Brythonic), Irish Gaelic, and Scottish Gaelic (Goedelic)–are under threat of extinction. Centuries of political and social pressures from the English and French have contributed to their decline, both in status and usage (Dalby, 1998). Such pressure has led to the near-obliteration of Manx and Cornish. (Manx is a Goedelic language of which only a few hundred speakers remain, most of whom learned it as adults, although some claim to have learned it as a first language from their grandparents. Cornish is a Brythonic language that died out in the 18th century; however, it has since undergone a revivalist movement–Crystal, 1994). Due to such pressures, most native Welsh speakers (excluding infants) are by now Welsh-English bilinguals. However, although “the history of the Welsh speaking population in the 20th century is a history of decline” (Baker, 1985: 1), recent efforts towards reviving the language have resulted in a promising increase in the number of speakers at the dawn of the 21st century. Adults living in Wales have been encouraged to learn Welsh as a second language, with over 13,000 adults reported to have attended Welsh language classes in 1993 (Jones, 1998). There has also been an increase in bilingual education over the past century. The Education Act of 1988 ensured that Welsh was an obligatory subject in all secondary schools in Wales, and since 1996, Welsh has been compulsory in the primary schools (Davies, 1999). This has undoubtedly affected the success of the revitalization process. Welsh is currently spoken by approximately 600,000 speakers–21% of the population of Wales (2001 Census data). However, the future of the language remains uncertain. Although Welsh seems to be in the strongest position for survival of all the Celtic languages, in many areas Welsh is becoming less of a community language. Such is the impact of this decline that, for many people living in Wales, the imminent death of the language is a foregone conclusion. All the surviving Celtic languages–Welsh, Breton, Scottish Gaelic, and Irish Gaelic–have retained most of their Celtic characteristics, one of which is their relatively unique2 mutation system. When language death is underway, it is possible to assume that grammatical categories or syntactic structures that are present in the minority language but that are not present in the dominant language will be the most likely to undergo change or decay. The mutation system is one such system. However, in cases where language shift is underway–where “a new language is gradually replacing the original language of a community” (Dorian, 1981: 114) –the remaining speakers of the original language of the community often display differing abilities with the language; this is especially relevant within the adult population. Recently, Jones (1998) has suggested, from a comprehensive study of linguistic change in two sociolinguistically contrasting Welsh communities, that language obsolescence is underway in Welsh in Rhosllannerchrugog and Rhymni. A key piece of evidence for this death is observed differences in adults’ abilities with grammatical gender (and with other constructions) in Welsh at distinct ages. Older adults’ speech was found to retain the use of more consistency of forms and greater conformity to the expected norms than that of the younger speakers. However, these two communities studied by Jones are communities in which Welsh is spoken by a very small minority. 1 Supported in part by ESRC grants R000 23 7882 and H474254101/R25037. 2The uniqueness of the mutation systems of the Celtic languages has been challenged, however (see e.g., Ball & Müller, 1992; Willis, 1990). © 2005 Enlli Môn Thomas and Virginia C. Mueller Gathercole. ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, ed. James Cohen, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad, and Jeff MacSwan, 2233-2257. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press. There are some contrasting areas in North Wales where bilingualism is dominant. These areas are under-represented in the literature on language obsolescence to date. An important question to address, therefore, is whether the processes of language death observed in some areas of Wales apply to areas where Welsh occupies a more prominent position in the community. The data discussed in this paper focus on the linguistic construction of grammatical gender. We will begin by giving a description of the mutation system, and its role in gender marking in Welsh. As will be seen, the constructs in question are extremely complex and opaque. Their description will be followed by a discussion of the normal “natural history” of complex constructs in normal language change, along with those expected in the “dying” situation. A summary of Jones’ (1998) findings will then be presented, followed by data on speakers’ productive and receptive abilities with gender constructs in the North Wales context of Gwynedd and Anglesey (or Ynys Môn). The county of Gwynedd, located in the northwest region of Wales “ forms part of what is termed the heartland of the Welsh language” (Lindsay, 1993: 1); it is also home to the largest density of speakers (Crystal, 1994; Aitchison & Carter, 1994; Jones, 1997). Whereas Gwynedd used to include Anglesey, since the re- assignment of the counties in 1996, Anglesey is now the second most prevalent area for Welsh. Our conclusion will be that whereas signs of obsolescence are present in the more Anglicized areas, where English monolingualism is dominant, such changes are not yet evident in those areas where bilingualism is dominant, suggesting that exposure is a major factor in the retention of these morphological and morphophonological forms in Welsh. 2. The mutation system in Welsh The mutation system of the Welsh language involves a morphophonological process whereby the initial segments of words change depending on the linguistic environment in which they appear. The Welsh system involves three mutation types, only two of which are relevant to grammatical gender and are discussed fully below. These are Soft Mutation (SM) and Aspirate Mutation (AM). Under SM, the voiceless stops /p, t, k/ and the liquids /Â, r8/ become voiced (/b, d, g, l, r/), the voiced stops /b, d/ and /m/ become fricatives (/v, D, v/), and /g/ is deleted. Under AM, the voiceless stops /p, t, k/ become fricatives (/f, T, x/), and /h/ is inserted before vowels. The feature of these mutations that sets them apart from mere processes of lenition and spirantization is that the conditioning environments are not generally phonological, but rather morphological, lexical, and syntactic. The linguistic environments for SM are numerous, and there are more initial sounds affected by SM than the other mutation types. The linguistic environments for AM are more limited, and fewer sounds are affected by this mutation. Tables 1 and 2 present some samples of the conditioning environments for each of these mutation types. As can be seen in Table 1, for example, many prepositions trigger SM. These include i “to”, o “from/of”, but not mewn “in”, or rhwng “between”. Thus, for example, the initial /k/ of coeden “tree” will undergo SM to become /g/ after the preposition ar “on”: mae aderyn ar goeden “is-bird-on-tree: (a) bird is on (a) tree” (but not mae aderyn rhwng coeden a wal “is -bird-between-tree-and-wall: (a) bird is between (a) tree and (a) wall”). Similarly ci [ki] “dog” will undergo AM into chi [xi] after the conjunction a “and”: cath a chi “cat and dog” (but not after the conjunction nid: ci nid cath “(a) dog not (a) cat”). 2.1 Mutation and gender According to Crystal (1994) gender is defined as a “grammatical category which displays such contrasts as masculine/feminine/neuter or animate/inanimate” (p. 151). Not all languages show grammatical gender distinctions; some show “natural” gender where gender distinctions can largely be made only for those referents that can be distinguished by sex. In grammatical gender languages, the gender denotes a grammatical classification of nouns and not the sex of the nouns’ referents. • 2234 • Table 1: Some triggering contexts for Soft Mutation (SM) (adapted from Thomas, 1996). Triggering Lexical Items Example Target Word Mutation Examples Class Demonstrative dacw “there is (are)” tyddyn “dwelling” Dacw dyddyn bach “There's a small Verbs dwelling” dyma “here is (are)” cyfle “chance” Dyma gyfle “Here's a chance” dyna “that is”/ “what” cwestiwn “question” Dyna gwestiwn “That's a question” or “What a question” wele “behold” rhywun “someone” Wele rywun yn dod “Behold someone coming” Prepositions am “for” popeth “everything” Diolch am bopeth “Thanks for everything” gan “by, with” merch “girl” Darlun gan ferch “[A] picture by a girl” heb “without” dinistrio “destroy” Cloddio heb ddinistrio dim “Digging without destroying anything” tan “under” llach “lash” Dan lach “under a lash” tros “over/ for, across” rhyddid “freedom” Pleidleisio tros ryddid “Voting for freedom” trwy “through/ by” lleddfu “to soothe” Gwella trwy leddfu poen “To improve by soothing the pain” wrth “by” calon “heart” Calon wrth galon... “Heart upon heart...” Degree cyn “as” coched “red (comparative)” Cyn goched â than “As red as fire” Markers