This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ The evolution of Spain's internal response to strategic and political ties with the United States from Franco to Zapatero Volkova-Ostroumoff, Anastasia Awarding institution: King's College London The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. END USER LICENCE AGREEMENT Unless another licence is stated on the immediately following page this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International licence. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ You are free to copy, distribute and transmit the work Under the following conditions: Attribution: You must attribute the work in the manner specified by the author (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Non Commercial: You may not use this work for commercial purposes. No Derivative Works - You may not alter, transform, or build upon this work. Any of these conditions can be waived if you receive permission from the author. Your fair dealings and other rights are in no way affected by the above. Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact [email protected] providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date: 25. Sep. 2021 This electronic theses or dissertation has been downloaded from the King’s Research Portal at https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/ Title: The evolution of Spain's internal response to strategic and political ties with the United States from Franco to Zapatero Author: Anastasia Volkova-Ostroumoff The copyright of this thesis rests with the author and no quotation from it or information derived from it may be published without proper acknowledgement. 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THE EVOLUTION OF SPAIN’S INTERNAL RESPONSE TO STRATEGIC AND POLITICAL TIES WITH THE UNITED STATES FROM FRANCO TO ZAPATERO (1953-2009) By ANASTASIA VOLKOVA-OSTROUMOFF Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy MIDDLE EAST & MEDITERRANEAN STUDIES PROGRAMME KING’S COLLEGE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON 2013 Abstract The modern era of Spanish relations with the United States began with the signing of the 1953 Madrid Pact that gave the US access to military bases in Spain. This thesis examines how the military bases provided the context for shaping the political and strategic ties between the United States and Spain. Through analysing the motivations and actions of successive Spanish governments from 1953 to 2009, this thesis will articulate the functional benefits that each partner has gained over the period under review. The study will show the changing nature of the relationship through four key phases: the need to end international isolation under Franco (1953-1975); the post-Franco desire for closer integration into the European economic and political architecture (1975- 1996); the rise of an Atlanticist ideological commitment to the US (1996-2004) under Prime Minister Jose Maria Aznar; and finally Prime Minister Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero’s multi-polar view of world politics (2004-2009). The last two chapters give an assessment of Aznar’s leadership by contrasting it with his immediate successor, Zapatero, who took over the leadership role of Spain during the Global War on Terror (GWOT). The argument of this thesis is that the nature of the relationship between Spain and the US has evolved over time from being transactional in nature to being, by mid-2009, based on a more balanced partnership. Base politics plays two key roles in this progression; firstly the nature of bases was a transactional pact based on military expediency to a Treaty of Friendship that has led to closer integration between the two countries strategically, politically, diplomatically and socially. The second key change was the economic growth of Spain and this thesis will argue that the US need for Spanish bases led to Spain’s rapid membership of North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO), followed by accession to the European Economic Community (EEC), in turn leading to Spain’s growth in economic and geopolitical power. 2 Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor Rory Miller for supervising my research and for all his efforts, support and given opportunities during my studies for which I am grateful. I would also like to thank Carlos Echeverria Jesus, Florentino Portero, Manuel Coma, Ignacio Cosido, Rafael Bardaji, Antonio Marquina Barrio, Angel Viñas, Lt. Cdz. Santiago G. Gayz, Ian Lesser, Ramon Hill Casores, Javier Ruperez, Militon Cardona, Ignacio Ruperez, Sanges d’Abadie, Susan Cleary, Joacquin Marti, F. Scornik Gerstein, Manuel Muniz and Joacquin Crespo for guiding me in my research and helping me to obtain data. Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family and friends for their help and support during my journey in education. Without their encouragement this thesis could not have been completed. 3 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Acknowledgements 3 Table of Contents 4 Abbreviations 8 Introduction 11 Map 17 1. The Evolution of US-Spanish Relations During the Franco Era 18 1.1 Introduction 18 1.2 The Early US Approach to US-Spanish Relations 20 1.3 The Dividends of a Pragmatic Approach to Foreign Policy 22 1.4 The 1953 US-Spanish Agreements 26 1.5 The Agreements Receive a Mixed Reception 29 1.6 New Military Installations in Spain 32 1.7 Political and Economic Debates Around the Agreements 34 1.8 Asymmetry of Agreements Called into Question 39 1.9 US Nuclear Strategy Reveals Inconsistencies 41 1.10 Renewal and Renegotiation: Diverging Opinions 43 1.11 A Post-Renewal Souring of Relationship 47 1.12 Franco’s Ambition Achieved Through Life and Death 49 1.13 Concessionary Politics at Work for Both Countries 51 2. Spain and NATO: 1975-1982 55 2.1 The Transition from Dictatorship to Democracy 55 2.2 Initial Democratic Missteps and Achievements 56 2.3 Spain’s Other Foreign Policy Strategies 62 2.4 The Deepening of Democratic Transition 65 2.5 Entry into NATO on the Agenda 67 2.6 US Still Key to Spain in Europe and the World 72 2.7 Grappling for Parity in the Renewal Agreement 75 4 2.8 Friendship, NATO and Further Integration 79 3. The Gonzalez Government: 1982-1996 85 3.1 US Ties for European Integration 85 3.2 Strong anti-US Sentiment and the Resurgence of Realpolitik 91 3.3 The Draw of Europe and the Acceptance of Atlanticism 93 3.4 Stability and Prosperity Through EC Membership 97 3.5 Spain and Latin America: a Sense of Hispanic Commonality 99 3.6 Spain Remains the Sixteenth Member of NATO 102 3.7 Significant Shifts in the New Government 105 3.8 A New Era: US-Spanish Cooperation in the Middle East and Balkans 108 3.9 A Credible and High Profile Partner 112 4. US-Spanish Relations in an Age of Global Terror 115 4.1 Introduction 115 4.2 Cultural Conflict in a Unipolar World 118 4.3 President Bush’s Faith in Aznar 122 4.4 Enthusiasm for Closer US-Spanish Ties to Defeat Terror 125 4.5 Spotlight on Aznar as Key Broker 133 4.6 Fissures across the EU and Domestic Opposition over Iraq 136 4.7 Aznar Holds Firm 141 4.8 Advantages and Costs of Aznar’s Stance on Terror 146 5. The Art of Diplomacy: The US-Spanish Partnership under the 155 Leadership of Bush and Aznar 5.1 The Election of Jose Maria Aznar and the Rise of Atlanticism 155 5.2 Spain’s Relations with the EC 157 5.3 Spain and Latin America: a New Approach 169 5.4 Aznar Elected: Atlanticism in Practice 164 5.5 The Importance of Spanish Bases to US Military Operations 168 5.6 Spain’s Foreign Policy Towards the Mediterranean and the Middle East 170 5.7 The Effect of 9/11 on US-Spanish Ties 177 5.8 Spain Commits to the War in Iraq 181 5.9 Aznar’s Reaction to the Madrid Bombings on 11 March 2004 184 5 5.10 Aznar and Bush: Presidential Affinity Factor 187 5.11 Aznar’s Work in the US Affects the Spanish Government 191 6. Elections, M-11 Bombings and US-Spanish Relations, 2004 196 6.1 Introduction 196 6.2 Terror on Spanish Soil: M-11 196 6.3 The Zenith of the Special Relationship 200 6.4 Threat Perception and the Realities of the New World Order 204 6.5 Responsibility and Perceptions in the Immediate Aftermath of the Attack 206 6.6 An Election turned Referendum 211 6.7 Aznar’s Defeat and the Spanish Psyche 213 6.8 The New Government Sticks to its Word 220 6.9 Troop Withdrawal and a New Stage in Relations 223 6.10 Zapatero and Spain Setting the Agenda 226 7.