THE ENHANCEMENT OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM EDUCATION AND TRAINING TO PRIMARY SCHOOL LEVEL AND RURAL COMMUNITIES IN ZIMBABWE BY EDMOND MARUNDA A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (COMMERCE) UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE Faculty of Commerce Department of Tourism Leisure and Hospitality Studies Supervisors: Professor Isaac CHANETA and Dr Taka MUNYANYIWA July, 2014 ABSTRACT The travel industry in Zimbabwe today, is the third largest foreign currency earner after agricultural produce, mainly tobacco exports and mining products. Tourism and hospitality makes an important and significant contribution to Zimbabwe’s economy in terms of employment creation, contribution to the balance of payments support and as a stimulator of capital for investments in both urban and rural areas. Tourism development is, however, grounded on the country’s unique cultural and natural heritage which is made up of sensitive ecosystems, encompassing national parks and wildlife. The increasing investments in tourism may cause adverse long term effects of developments in biodiversity and loss of wildlife. It is therefore, vital that communities living next to tourist attractions be educated so that they practise eco-tourism or sustainable tourism as a matter of priority. The focus of this study is to identify a curriculum for the education of primary school learners in Zimbabwe and for the training of rural communities living within or neighbouring tourism resorts and attractions. Such a curriculum should equip primary school learners and communities with the requisite knowledge to preserve and protect their environment effectively. Introducing tourism and hospitality education at primary school and community level enhances the implementation of eco- and cultural tourism to the maximum economic benefits of school learners and rural communities. In a bid to come up with a primary school curriculum incorporating tourism and hospitality education, some 145 out of a population of 250 respondents were interviewed in and around the tourist resort areas of Nyanga, Harare, Bulawayo and Victoria Falls. The study tendered a realistic and practical framework for the development of a primary school curriculum incorporating “ Tourism and Hospitality” as a subject, which can also be used as an education or training guideline by communities next to resort areas and tourist attractions. Challenges facing rural communities regarding the implementation of eco- and cultural tourism were identified and strategies for the preservation and protection of the environment were proposed. Partnerships derived from best practices in environmental management and eco- tourism benefiting schools and communities, were also identified. ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my wife Elizabeth, my children Rutendo, Farai, Tinashe and Tapiwa and to my grandchildren, Harvey, Ebony and Dante iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the unwavering support of my two supervisors Professor Isaac Chaneta (Dean of Commerce) and Dr Taka Munyanyiwa (PVC Business) for the guidance and support throughout this research study. Thank you and best regards. I wish to thank my colleagues in the Department of Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Studies for their invaluable advice and encouragement. iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CBT Community-based tourism CDU Curriculum Development Unit CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CVDP Comprehensive Village Development Programme ECD Early Childhood Education IHTEC International Holistic Tourism Education Centre MICE Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions MoESAC Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture MoPSE Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education NGO Non-Governmental Organizations PPT Pro-Poor Tourism SMEs, Small to Medium-scale Enterprises TIES The International Ecotourism Society UN-WTO United Nations World Tourism Organisation WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council CZI Confederation of Zimbabwe Industries ZCT Zimbabwe Council for Tourism ZIMDEF Zimbabwe Manpower Development Fund ZTA Zimbabwe Tourism Authority v LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page 2.1 Tourism curricula are hardly available in the Caribbean Islands Schools ………….. 35 4.1 Perceived differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches ………… 65 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Title Page 1.1 Tourist Arrivals to Zimbabwe ………………………………………………… ………………………… …… 2 1. 2 Tourism receipts ……………… ……………………………………………………… …………………..…… .. 4 2. 1 Major forms of tourism ……………………………………………………………… ……………….. …… … 14 3. 1 A model tourism curriculum for primary school education in Zimbabwe… …………… 46 3.2 Social and practical subjects of the Tour ism and Hospitality curriculum…… ……… …. 49 3.3 Tourism and hospitality comprises a variety of practical subject areas …… …… .. ……. 56 5.1 Distribution of respondents based on loc ation of their workplace……………… ………. 74 5. 2 Distribution of respondent s by sex………………………………………………………… ……… ……… 75 5. 3 Distribution of respondents according to experience in the workplace…… ……… …….. 76 5.4 Distribution of respondents by level of education………………………………… ………… ……. 76 5.5 Distribution of respondents by their pos ition in their organisation…… ………… ………… 77 5.6 Distribution of respondents according to the industr y sector of their organisat ion… 78 5. 7 Possible community benefits out of tourism……………………………………………………….. 79 5. 8 Does Zimbabwe engage a viable primary education policy?.................................... 80 5. 9 Recommended primary school subjects in resort areas………………………………………… 81 5. 10 Investment oppo rtunities for communities……………… …………………………………………. 83 5. 11 Communities contracts and relationships…………………………………………………………….. 84 5.12 Primary school curriculum: academic or practical?.................................................. 85 5.13 Traditional norms that enhance protection and preservation …………………………….. 86 5.14 Local community challenges in implementing tourism and hospitality………………… 87 5.15 Responsive curriculum to tourism and hospitality curriculum……………………………… 89 5.16 Marketing tools for local tourism products and artefacts…………………………………….. 90 5.17 Information and computer technologies and tourism…………………………………………… 91 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT..… …………… ……………..…………. .…………………………………………………………………………………. i DEDICATION……… …………..……… ……... ..………………………………………………………………………………….. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………... ……… …….………………………………………………………………………………… iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…..…… ………………. ………..…………..………………………………………………………… iv LIST OF TABLES…..………………..………………… …………… ……………………… ………………………… …… …………. v LIST OF FIGURES………………… ..……………………………… …………… ……………………………………………….…… vi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………….. 1 1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………….. 1 1.1 Background to study………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… 2 1.2 Statement of the problem…………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………….. 5 1.3 Research objectives………………………………………………………………… .............................................................. 6 1.4 Research questions………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………. 7 1.5 Hypothesis…………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………….. 7 1.6 Significance of the study……………………………………………………………... ......................................................... 8 1.7 Limitations of the study……………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………… . 8 1.8 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………….. 9 Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… 11 2 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………. 11 2.1 Definition of tourism………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………… 11 2.1.1 The growth of tourism…..………………………………………………………... ........................................................ 13 2.1.2 Forms of tourism…..……………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………. 14 2.2 Types of tourism……………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… 15 2.2.1 Sustainable tourism……………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………. 15 2.2.1.1 Sustainable tourism and renewable energy use…………………………… …………..………………………… 17 2.2.1.2 Sustainable tourism and wood energy use…………………………… …………………………………………….. 20 2.2.2 Ecotourism…………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………… 21 2.2.3 Cultural, Heritage and Historic tourism ……………………………………… ………………………………………………. 23 2.2.4 Education tourism…………………………………………………………... ............................................................... 24 2.2.5 Sport tourism……………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………… 25 viii 2.3 Zimbabwe Education System……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 25 2.3.1 Basic education…………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………… 25 2.3.2 Tertiary and higher education………………………………………………………………………… ….. ……………………….. 26 2.4 Curriculum development………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ….. 26 2.4.1Learning Domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives…………… …………………………………. 27 2.4.2 Curriculum Development Unit (CDU)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 28 2.4.3 School curricula in Zimbabwe ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29 2.4.4 Function of the Curriculum Development Unit in Zimbabwe…………………………………………………… ……. 31 2.4.5 International Curriculum Designs in tourism………………………………………………………………………………….. 34 2.4.6 Curriculum designing in Zimbabwe……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 36 2.5 Local manpower development…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 38 2.6 Institutional development…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….