The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School School of Behavior Sciences and Education COUNTER-LEARNING UNDER OPPRESSION A Dissertation in Adult Education by Ilhan Kucukaydin © 2008 Ilhan Kucukaydin Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education May, 2008 ii The dissertation of Ilhan Kucukaydin was reviewed and approved* by the following: Daniele D. Flannery Associate Professor of Adult Education Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee Patricia A. Cranton Visiting Professor of Adult Education Holly L. Angelique Associate Professor of Community Psychology Kenneth B. Cunningham Associate Professor of Sociology Edgar I. Farmer Professor of Education and Department Head for Learning & Performance Systems Acting Professor-in-Charge of Graduate Programs in Adult Education *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT This qualitative study utilized narrative analysis to explore and better understand the counter-learning of an oppressed Kurdish woman, Zelo, from Turkey. The study looked specifically at the process of developing counter-learning under multilayered oppression from her childhood through the present. The theoretical frameworks of critical constructivism and Marcusian critical theory provided the lens which guided the study. Whereas critical constructivism was utilized to analyze adults’ counter-learning under extreme oppressive situations, Marcusian critical theory was used to analyze the socio- political context in a greater scale and its impact on the oppressed. A series of semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted. The focus of the data gathering was Zelo’s past and present experiences under various layers of oppression to explore the phenomenon and gain more insights. The major findings are related to two key inseparable phenomena: the nature of oppression and the dynamics of counter-learning. This study revealed that oppression is not only multi-layered, it is also multi-dimensional. In addition, oppression creates its own vital cultural components that play a crucial role in both feeding back the system of oppression and maintaining it, and also creating subjective and material conditions to resist the given ways of knowing, learning, sensing, feeling, and being. Some of the components are culture of creating a caretaker, culture of silence, culture of objectification, culture of double bind, and culture of learned-hopelessness. This study provided many insights into counter-learning. Zelo’s narrative revealed that through her daily struggle and circumstances, she learned to conceptualize, problematize, and politicize daily oppressive occurrences. She usually did this without deliberate iv articulation of it. Engaging with counter-learning, Zelo also learned to make meaning out of seemingly innocent and apolitical experiences. For example, motherhood, in her hands, became subversive rather than submissive; collective rather than individual; and it has become empowering rather than empowered by third parties. Zelo also saw and felt the power of words and concepts. She began distinguishing words and giving them socio- political meaning. In addition, engaging counter-learning not only restored her self image that was derogated and damaged by the oppression but also increased her self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-respect. Furthermore, she experienced transformation, which manifested itself morally, spiritually, and politically. Finally, the data indicated counter- learning was emotional, symbolic and imaginative. Based on these findings, implications for adult education theory and practice are discussed. Included are suggestions for future research on counter-learning under oppression. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES x ACKNOWLDGEMENTS xi DEDICATION xii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Oppression and Counter-Learning 3 Complexity of Learning and Its Paradigms 4 Various Approaches to Learning and Ways of Organizing It 6 Another Way of Organizing the Learning Paradigms 7 Theoretical Framework 9 Critical Constructivism…………………………...…………………… 10 Frankfurt School – Based Critical Theory ………………………………11 Herbert Marcuse ……………………………………………………13 Conclusion ………………………………………………………………15 Purpose of the Study 15 Problem Statement 16 Research Questions 17 Methodology 17 Narrative and Narrative Analysis 18 Narrative 18 Narrative Analysis 20 Rationale for Selecting Narrative Analysis as a Method 23 Data Collection and Analysis 24 Data Gathering 25 Criteria for Qualitative Research 26 Significance of the Study 26 Definition of Terms 28 Assumptions of the Study 32 Limitations of the Study 33 Chapter Summary 34 Chapter 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 35 The Frankfurt School 35 The Frankfurt School and Reason 36 Auschwitz and Reason 38 Upshot of Reason: Technology 39 Tyranny of Positivism 41 Authoritarianism and Individual 43 Human Psyche, Society and Socialization 44 Vicissitudes of the Concept of Socialization 46 vi One-Dimensional Man and Marcuse 48 One-Dimensional Society 51 Pessimism – Reality – Hope 54 Liberation 56 Constructivism 62 Theoretical Roots of Constructivism 62 Contemporary Constructivism 63 Cognitive and Social Constructivism 66 Critical Constructivism 69 Critical Constructivism and Analysis of the Personal 70 One Clarification 71 Adult Education Literature 73 A key for Learning: The Context 74 Learning Paradigms 79 Non-Liberatory Learning Paradigms 79 Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning 79 Humanist Learning Paradigms 83 Liberatory Learning Paradigms 84 Freirian Pedagogy 88 Feminist Theory 94 Socialist Feminism 95 Pertinent Studies 102 Chapter Summary 105 Chapter 3. METHODOLOGY 108 Research Purpose and Problem 108 Overview Research Methodology 109 Conceptualizing the Term “Narrative” 110 Testimonio and Counter Learning Narrative 117 Narrative Analysis 120 Structural Models 123 Rationale for Choosing Narrative Analysis 126 Research Questions 129 Site Selection 129 Background of the Researcher 130 Participant Selection Procedures 133 Trust 136 Data Collection Procedures and Methods 137 Questionnaire/Interview Details 138 Data Analysis Procedure 140 Verification 141 Persuasiveness 142 Correspondence 143 Coherence 144 Pragmatic Use 145 vii Chapter Summary 145 PART II Chapter 4. MACRO AND MICRO ANALYSIS 147 Marcusian Analysis and Its Relevance for Turkey 147 Concepts and Their Universalities 148 Terroristic Potentials of Advanced Society 149 Advanced Capabilities of Greater Collaboration in a Globalizing Capitalism and Imperialism 154 A Macro Analysis: Turkey 158 Demographic Information 158 Political History: Terroristic-Social Engineering 159 Religion 161 Militarism 163 Turkish Military and Politics 164 Turkish Military and Transnational Capitalist Ideology 165 The September 12 Coup 166 The Coup’s Apparatuses 171 Media 171 Daily Incidents 175 Education 176 Democracy and Extended Terror 180 Kurds 181 New Kurdish Upraising 183 Dirty War and State Terrorism 185 Violence Against Women 189 Kurdish Cultural Violence Against Women 194 Non-Terroristic Social Engineering 197 A Micro Analysis: Zelo’s Story 200 Informal Consent and First Questions 200 Childhood 202 Family Structure 203 Marriage 204 Migration and Big City 211 Politics 214 Ethnic Identity and Racism 215 Military Coup 216 Suicide Attempt 217 The Last Straw 219 Raising Children 220 Divorce 225 Life After Divorce 227 The Pro-Kurdish Party 232 Mastering Discourse 239 Brother-in-law: Reso 240 viii Zelo on Daily Incidents 244 Teacher-Educator 244 Guardian of a Student 244 Humanity and Money 245 Crime in Cities 247 Women 248 Oppression and Sultanate 252 Education System and Reading Accurately 252 Fear 255 Feminism 255 Chapter Summary 256 Chapter 5: RESEARCH FINDINGS 258 Introduction 258 Oppression 260 Finding 1: Oppression is not just Multi-layered 260 Finding 2: Oppression Creates Its Own Components 262 Culture of Creating a Caretaker 263 Culture of Virtue 264 Culture of Silence 267 Culture of Objectification 268 Culture of Double-Bind 271 Culture of Learned-Hopelessness 272 Counter-Learning Under Oppression (CLUO) 276 Characteristics of CLUO 278 Finding 1: We and They 278 Finding 2: Multi Consciousness 283 Finding 3: Confidence 285 Finding 4: Loneliness or Ostracized from Others 287 Finding 5: Problematization 290 Finding 6: Politicization 291 Finding 7: Negation 296 Finding 8: Conceptual Learning 300 Finding 9: Counter Language of the Oppressed 306 Finding 10: Transformation 308 Chapter Summary 315 Chapter 6: DISCUSSION 316 CLUO and Oppression 317 CLUO and Constructivism – Critical Constructivism 322 CLUO and Adult Education Literature 328 Reflection on Marcusian Theory and Marcusian Analysis 338 Insights for Adult Education Research, Theory, and Practice 340 Pertinent to Adult Education Research 340 Pertinent to Adult Education Learning Theory 342 ix Pertinent to Adult Education Practice 342 Suggestion for Future Research 344 Epilogue 348 References 351 Appendix: Recruitment Letter 386 x LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Narrative and Realm of Experience 112 xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank those who supported me during my doctoral studies. First, I want to express by sincere appreciation to my wife, Senel, who has been my source of motivation and strength. Next, I must thank my wonderful daughters, Zozan and Dilan for being patient, understanding, and forgiving during the endless hours that I worked on this project and did not play. I hope my love and passion of knowing and learning will be a model for you. I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to Dr. Daniele Flannery, my thesis advisor and Committee