1. Language universals EXFAC03-AAS v12 Introduction: The lecturer ,filfil, istihoti, պղպեղ ,ﻓﻠﻔﻞ ,peper, piper, ቁንዶ ብርብሪ, kundo berbere bghbegh, jaluk, бибәр, biber, piperra, перац, perats, golmarich, p’ilp’il, pebr, пипер, pipar, nayukon, pεpε, pebre, 胡椒, hú-jiāo, pwav, papar, pepř, EXFAC03-AAS v12 peber, peper, ẹkhiẹn, pepper, pipor, pipro, pipar, pippuri, poivre, shitor, pementa, kamulali, პილპილი, pilpili, pfeffer, pheffur, pheffar, πιπέρι, pilpel, िमच,र् mirch, kua txob, hwj ,פלפל ,pipéri, mari, pipa, màsóoróo, pepa Language txob, bors, ose, merica, lada, pilipili, piobar, pepe, 胡椒, koshoo, mrica, ಣಸು, menasu, mòsóró, Бұрыш, burış, bogij, mrech, nduru, ndũrũ, пе̄рэц , pierec, муруч, muruch, 후추, huchu, phik noi, pipari, pipirai, 1: Language universals бибер, biber, dipoàvatra, lada, mulagu, bżar, kutuŋ, поваарь, povaair, ,ﻓﻠﻔﻞ ,pepee, pherefere, gola maricha, hudʒau, nthänts'i, (kali) marich philphili, pieprz, pimenta, pebre, peure, kaxlan q’een, pepšo, перец, perets, marica, pë́pë, бибер, biber, dipwav, miris, peprovník, poper, pjepjeŕ, pepere, pimienta, pepre, pilipili, peppar, paminta, மிளகு, milagu, řfəřfəř, savyamu, พรกไทย,ิ phrík thai, fowarilbu, pepa, viriviri, perehere, ,mirch, eribo, phiriphiri, hạt tiêu ,ﮐﺎﻟﯽ ﻣﺮچ ,meko, pimenta, перець, perets ,fefer, ata, uphepha ,פעפער ,Steve Pepper <[email protected]> pupur, ponhontaj, ipepile, bieres, pimientam 2 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Introduction: Course contents The lectures Kort om emnet 1. Universals Amharic (amh) Î ቁንዶ ብርብሪ (kundo berbere) (filfil) ﻓﻠﻔﻞ Emnet består av to deler: 2. Typology Arabic (ara) Î ● Språk: Innføring i lingvistisk analyse basert på eksempler fra språk i Asia (pilpel) פלפל Hebrew (heb) Î og Afrika. 3. Language families ● Kultur: ... 4. Language contact Hindi (hin) Î िमचर् (mirch) Etter avlagt og bestått eksamen skal du: Î こしょう (koshoo) ● kunne anvende lingvistisk analyse på 5. Language variation Japanese (jpn) 胡椒 / relevante asiatiske og afrikanske Î (hú-jiāo) språk, med et konsekvent sammen- 6. Summary Chinese (zho) 胡椒 lignende fokus på bl.a.universalier og (filfil) ﻓﻠﻔﻞ typologi, språkfamilier og område- (or perhaps a film?) Persian (fas) Î trekk, dialekter og sosiolekter; (marica) ● ... Sanskrit (san) Î मिरचं Turkish (tur) Î biber (biber) 3 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 4 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Comparing three Language universals languages Topics – Lexicon vs. grammar Japanese ● Kinds of universals – Form & meaning shiyoonin ga uma ni mizu wo ageta – absolute, statistical, servant NOM horse DAT water ACC gave implicational – Arbitrariness ● Explanations for – Double articulation Arabic universals – Lexical universals ´actˠā l-khādimu l-ħisˠāna mā´an – monogenesis, innateness, gave the-servant-NOM the-horse-ACC water-ACC language contact, function – Colour terms Fula ● Specific examples of – Word classes universals – Speech sounds suka hokkii puccu ndiyam – … servant gave horse water IPA: http://www.yorku.ca/earmstro/ipa/ 5 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 6 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 1 1. Language universals EXFAC03-AAS v12 Differences Similarities Japanese Meaningful units Meaning components Three obvious shiyoonin ga uma ni mizu wo ageta ● Sentences consisting of ● Sentence expresses an differences servant NOM horse DAT water ACC gave words event consisting of an ● Pronunciation Arabic “action” (giving) and three ´actˠā l-khādimu l-ħisˠāna mā´an Form and meaning ● Word order participants gave the-servant-NOM the-horse-ACC water-ACC ● Each word has a fixed ● Case marking Fula pronunciation and semantic Word classes suka hokkii puccu ndiyam content ● Action referred to with a verb, servant gave horse water Two less obvious Sound units the participants with nouns differences ● Pronunciation can be Syntactic functions ● Meanings (e.g. ‘servant’) analyzed as syllables made ● Participants perform different up of vowels and grammatical functions ● Arabic sentence non- consonants (subject, direct object, indirect idiomatic (cf. ´arwā or object) 7 > Instituttrawwā for kulturstudier= og‘to orientalske give språk water’) (IKOS) Steve Pepper 8 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Three kinds of Explanations for universals universals Absolute universals Monogenesis (lit. “single birth”) ● Properties found in all languages ● “All languages derive from the same proto-language” – “All languages have vowels and consonants” Language contact Statistical universals ● Languages constantly influence each other ● Properties found in most languages, but not all – “Subjects tend strongly to precede objects” Innateness Implicational universals ● “Language structure is genetically determined” ● Property A implies property B (but not necessarily Function vice-versa) ● Ease of use (fitness for purpose) based on cognitive, – “If a language has voiced fricatives, it also has unvoiced anatomic or other considerations fricatives, but not necessarily the other way round” 9 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 10 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Differences between Lexicon and grammar lexicon and grammar All languages make use of two basic components Objects Form Complexity Lexicon LEXICON individual items strings of sounds whole GRAMMAR general rules structural patterns combination ● Mental dictionary containing all lexical items /sli:p/ (e.g. words and fixed expressions) ‘to take repose by the natural The distinction is not absolute – horse, run, beautiful, kick the bucket, sleep, … suspension of consciousness’ ● What is a rule? Grammar – (is will a lexical item or a grammatical marker?) ● Rules or patterns for combining lexical items ● Grammatical meaning not only expressed through structure – (also affixes and function words, e.g. plural -s, perfect marker have) Peter will come! Subject AUX Verb Will Peter come? AUX Subject Verb ● Lexicon contains many complex items in which grammatical structure enters into the lexicon STATEMENT: That X will do Y QUESTION: Whether X will do Y – children, kindness, milk-shake, kick the bucket 11 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 12 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) 2 1. Language universals EXFAC03-AAS v12 Form and meaning Meaning and form Language is a medium of All languages consist of pairings of form and meaning || concept communication signifié ● Saussure’s linguistic sign sound pattern Ideas (meaning) are – sound pattern (signifiant) and [tɹi:] signifiant transmitted using speech concept (signifié) sounds (form) The meaning of a lexical item is different from its reference Saussure (the “father of Person A produces speech sounds – form – to transmit ideas – meaning – from his mind ● The English word ‘tree’ represents a modern linguistics”) used to the mind of person B. mental concept the diagram on the right in Person B more or less successfully ● It exists in the mind of the speaker as his famous Cours de reconstructs the ideas of person A in his a psychological entity own mind on the basis of the sound waves linguistique generale (1916) that his ears pick up. ● The actual trees found in the physical world all belong to the reference of the word ‘tree’, not to its meaning 13 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 14 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper Form as both physical The components of and psychological entity language The same distinction applies to form Also the main components semantics ● phonetic form is concrete and physical (sound waves) of the study of language – ● psychological form varies from language to language linguistics An example from English and Korean ● semantics – meaning lexicon grammar ● English [ph] and [p] are perceived as the same sound even though ● phonology –form they are phonetically distinct ● lexicon and grammar are phonology – cf. pill [phɪl] and spill [spɪl] “intermediaries” ● Korean [ph] and [p] are perceived as different sounds Grammar usually divided Syntax – cf. 팔 [phal] ‘arm’ and 발 [pal] ‘leg’ into two parts ● studies how words are combined ● syntax The physical sounds (phones) [ph] and [p] are two distinct Morphology phonemes in Korean, and a single phoneme in English ● morphology ● the internal structure of words 15 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper 16 > Institutt for kulturstudier og orientalske språk (IKOS) Steve Pepper The relationship between form and meaning. Arbitrariness. Temporal iconicity In general the relationship is arbitrary I came, I saw, I conquered –(LAT: Veni, vidi, vici) But it can also be motivated or iconic ● Order of clauses reflects order of events Arbitrariness in lexical items Principle extends to other grammatical structures ● ‘tree’ = arbre mti ju tlugvi FRA SWA JAP CHR ●Giveninformation tends to precede new information ●/ni:/ = nine NOR DAT JAP I HAU you (sg) ZHO ● If-clause tends to precede then-clause in conditionals Motivation in grammatical structures ● Clauses expressing cause tend to precede clauses ● milk + shake = milk shake expressing effect ● hen + -s = hens Iconicity Such principles