"SUBVERSIVE SUBSERVIENCE": A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE RESPONSES OF TIYO SOGA AND MPAMBANI MZIMBA TO THE SCOTTISH MISSIONARY ENTERPRISE. A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF HUMANITIES IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN BY MALINGE McLAREN NJEZA AUGUST 2000 RONDEBOSCH, CAPE TOWN The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. TABLE OF CONTENTS AlC~OVVLEIMJE~S.................... .................... lii .ABSTRACT. vi INTRODUCflON . 1 CHAPTER 1 . 12 EVANGEUZING 7HE NAlTIVE' - SCOmSH MISSIONS ON THE EAlS~FllONTIEFt... ......................... ... ............. 12 The Scottish Mission and the R.harhabe Factor. .. 19 Van der Kemp, Williams and the A.maR.harhabe-Xhosa. .. 24 The 1820 British Settlement.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 31 Brownlee and Beginnings of the Scottish Mission. 36 Mission Stations as sacred spaces of Disruption . .. .. .. 40 CH.AP1'EFt 2 . 46 'COLONIZING THE MIND' - THE LOVEDALE EXPERIMENT. 46 The Establishment ofLovedale. 55 William Govan: Teacher ofSoga. 60 James Stewart: Teacher ofMzimba . 65 The 'classics debate': Education for Equality or 'Colonizing the Mind'? . 70 CH.APTER. 3 . 86 TIYO SOGA STRADDLING TWO CULTURES. 86 Early Formation and the Lovedale Experience. 86 The Scottish Experience. 93 Aln Alwakening of Afucan Consciousness. 100 The Final Return . 104 11 CHAPTER 4 .................................................... 117 SOOA: LITERARY RESPONSE TO EUROPEAN CHRISTIANITY. 117 Expressions of African Identity . 117 Literary Critic. 132 Literary Contribution. .. 139 Songs ofProtest . 146 CHAPTER 5 . 150 MP AMBANl MZIMBA: CHRISTIAN AND AFRICAN NATIONALIST. 150 Early Fonnation. 150 The Lovedale Experience. 156 The Scottish Visit. 168 Social Leadership. 170 The Education Debate Revisited. 175 CHAPTER 6 . 180 MZIMBA: STRUCTURAL RESPONSE TO MISSIONARY DOMINATION 180 Bumshill, Johannesburg and the Tsewu Factors. 184 The Formation ofthe Presbyterian Church of Africa . 193 Colonial and Missionary Reaction. 204 African Reaction. 209 Whither the Presbyterian Church of Africa? . 211 OIAPTER 7.................................................... 216 A COMPARISON OF SOOA & MZIMBA'S RESPONSES TO THE SCOTTISH MISSION .............. ............................... 216 Conte~nuyChallenges..................... ...... ................ 229 Conclusion. 238 BmIJOORAPHY . 242 The Financial Assistance ofthe Centre for Science Development and the Mellon Foundation Scholarship towards this research is gratefully acknowledged. Opinions expressed in this work are. however. those ofthe author and are not to be attributed to the Funders. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study represents the culmination of many years of my spiritual journey and reflection upon the meaning thereof It does not represent the end, nonetheless, but one significant station on that journey. Otherwise, the journey continues. The study reflects my thoughts and direction at this stage. Others are welcomed to take these and build upon them, or otherwise. A marathon is a team effort and cannot be run alone. I am thus deeply indebted to a few people; for their inspiration, support and encouragement, without whom this journey would have been impossible. FEDSEM: My learning experience and intellectual journey in academic theology began with Fedsem in February 1981. Fedsem laid the foundation upon which I stand in my theological endeavours. It was there that my life was fundamentally transformed, and the roots of my African consciousness were planted. Fedsem marked the beginnings of my earliest multiracial and multicultural encounters. This was a crisis as much as it was a challenge. I began to learn to think in multi terms, not only this, but also the experience to compete on equal terms regardless of race. Enabling this thought process were fellow students and academic staff alike. Amongst the latter, I would like to mention particularly Mazwi Tisani, Ian Thomson, Drs. Lizo Jafta and Khoza Mgojo. They wetted my academic appetite, for which I am grateful. ABERDEEN: My journey into further multicultural, multiracial, and academic encounters continued into the land of the Scots in 1990. The Church of Scotland sponsored my studies at Aberdeen University, and I thank them for this kindness. In Aberdeen I discovered the other side from my previous South African experiences. I am grateful to the Faculty of Theology with Religion for contributing to my academic learning process. Professor David Ferguson and Dr. Gary Badcock encouraged me towards doctoral studies. This is the fruit of their trust. UCT: The Christian Studies community at the Department of Religious Studies provided a good environment for creative work.. The post-graduate seminar group was invaluable in shaping and expanding my ideas. It afforded me a rare experience of discourse with some of the worthy alumni of the Department like lV Barney Pityana, Rueben Arendse, Steve Martin and others. RICSA provided valuable skills and resources in many ways. My special gratitude goes to my supervisor, Prof. John W. de Gruchy, from whom I learned so much. The first imbizo we had about this thesis was in Edinburgh, Scotland, back in 1993. I was still at Aberdeen University, and Prof. de Gruchy was a visiting professor at Edinburgh University. There have been countless other iimbizo since then which resulted in this study. Prof. de Gruchy took a holistic interest in me and understood all my struggles. It is through his support and confidence in me that this thesis has seen the light of day. He helped me in terms of improving my writing skills, sharpening my focus and directing my research. It was a rare honour to work with him. I could not have worked with a better supervisor, nangamso Prof.! To the former RPCSA family I would like to record my indebtedness, particularly to the late general secretary, the Rev. Samuel Bekumusa Ngcobo. He made the Aberdeen sojourn possible, and stood by me always. Also to the late Rev. Wilson Vuyisile Masinda, thank you Rhadebe for believing in me. Last but certainly not least, to a dear friend friend and colleague, Vuyani Vellem, who shared valuable insights with me on certain aspects of this thesis, ndibamba ngazibini Msimango. Finally to that woman who sacrificed much during the writing of this thesis, Zuki, my dear wife, lowe this to you Mancuthu. And to my lovely kids who had to endure long periods of my absence~ this one is for you. v ABSTRACT My thesis is that early Afiican Christians engaged in critical dialogue with their missionary counterparts in a variety of ways and fonns which served to challenge and enrich the Christianization process in South Africa, eventually giving rise to the emergence of African Christianity and theologies. My aim is to show that African Christians talked back in the long conversation with the European missionaries, "a conversation full of arguments of words and images." 1 Early Afiican Christians used various strategies and ways of responding to the missionary encounter ranging from overt to covert forms of resistance and negotiation. These were related to conditions on the ground. Afiican Christian responses thus contradict any assertion of total conformity to the colonial missionary praxis. The classics debate at Lovedale, for instance, reveals that despite the apparent conformity and obedience to orthodoxy at the official level there was an awareness of ambivalence at a secondary (hidden) level. It is this awareness rather than the obvious ambivalence that is crucial to us. My study explores the manner and extent of the role of African agency in the process of "translation" and "vernacularisation" of the missionary message.2 However, it aims to do this from beyond the 'normal' constructions cast in Western perspective by adopting an Afrocentrist bias. Tinyiko Maluleke has argued for the need to formulate the African Christian commentary on missionary Christianity "not from the point of view of the 'senders' but from the point of view of the 'recipients.",3 It is the aim of this study to highlight the 'recipients' commentary and assess the manner of their reaction to their Christianization. This will be done through particular case studies focused on Tiyo Soga and Mpambani Mzimba. We shall interrogate the nature of their appropriation of the Scottish Christianity and the manner and extent of their critical distance thereto in the 1 Comaroff Jean and John Comaroff, Of Revelation and Revolution: Christianity, Colonialism and Consciousness in South Africa, Vol. 1 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 17. 2 Cf. L. Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1989); K. Bediako, Christianity in Africa: The Renewal of a Non-Western Religion (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1995); T. S. Maluleke, 'Black and African Theologies in the New World Order: A Time to Drink from our Own Wells', Journal of Theology for Southern Africa, No. 96, November 1996 (pp. 3 - 18). 3 S. T. Maluleke, '''A Morula Tree Between Two Fields": The Commentary of Selected Tsonga Writers on Missionary Christianity', unpublished D.Th. thesis, University of South Africa, 1995, p. 36. vi maintenance of their African rultural identity. In their interaction