t LOGOLI WOMEN OF WESTERN KENYA SPEAK: NEEDS AND MEANS by / Judith M. Abwunza i University of NAIROBI Library A Thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the University of Toronto ® Judith M. Abwunza 1991 o / S'% . - W oA % % > / ABSTRACT Logoii Women of Western Kenya Speak: Needs And Means Judith M. Abwunza University of Toronto Department of Anthropology The research on women's power in collective and capitalist structures recognises the important economic position of women. Research in Maragoli, Kenya, shows that women's work is not universally confined to the domestic sphere, nor is gender inequality in productive relations a result of the eclipse of communal and family-based production and property ownership. Women believe gender / inequality is increasing in Maragoli and are resisting. Logoii women attribute the trend to increasing gender inequality to men's actions in entrenching traditional cultural values of patriarchal ideology which serve to reduce and deny women's growing productive role and value. Maragoli women are not controlled by patriarchal ideology although these values are part of the cultural rhetoric. In Maragoli, women assume a posture of ideological and institutional acceptance attached to "the Avalogoli way" as deliberate social action while recognising that "today life is not fair to women". They are producers of both use and exchange value in the collective and capitalist structures, ii extending "home work” responsibilities to "outside work" using cultural avenues to power. Their skills are generated within the collectivity through the accumulation of information and influence which accords them a culturally- valued reputation as "good Logoli wives". Women have power even in a society with a patriarchal ideology and this power is growing as they recognise that male elders no longer rule in their best interests. This research is based on fieldwork conducted in Maragoli from August 1987 to June 1988. / iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I acknowledge funding for this research from the following: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council Doctoral Fellowships; International Development Research Centre; Centre for International Studies, University of Toronto. I also acknowledge that permission to engage in this research was given by the Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto and the Office of the President, Kenya, East Africa. Affiliation during the time of the research was provided by the University of Nairobi and the Institute of African Studies, University of Nairobi. / I thank my supervisor, Michael D. Levin for his guidance throughout my tenure as student at the University of Toronto, during my time in the field and during the production of this thesis. I would like to thank members of the committee for their assistance. I would also like to thank my academic friends and colleagues at Wilfrid Laurier University and at the University of Western Ontario for their support and encouragement. Particular thanks go to Patricia Taft, my friend and colleague who assisted in editing the first draft of this thesis. Her insightful advice is distributed throughout this text. iv To the people of Logoli, I say, Mirembe. Asande muno for giving your time and intimacy to provide the details of this study. You contributed the ambience for participant observation as you embraced me in your lives and provided me with your support and friendship. It is my hope that the information produced in this study will provide further legitimisation of the classification, "She is one of ours." Avana va Mulogoli, my husband and my children, thank you for your love and your sacrifice. I dedicate this thesis to you. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT.............................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................... vi LIST OF MAPS.......................................... X MAP 1................................................. xi MAP 2................................................. xii Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION.................................. 1 Theoretical Problems........................ 4 Fieldwork................................... 19 Language.................................... 2 5 Luragoli.............................. 25 Kiswahili and English................. 26 Local English......................... 26 Organisation of the Thesis.................. 27 Notes....................................... 29 2. WOMEN'S POWER AND VOICE: A LITERATURE REVIEW........................ 3 2 Literature on Women's Power................. 35 Education............................. 42 Discovery of Women's Power.................. 46 Denial/Conviction of Women's Power.... 55 Women's Voices.............................. 62 vi Conclusion.................................. 64 Notes....................................... 67 3. AVALOGOLI..................................... 69 Geography and Description of Place........ 69 Maragoli.............................. 70 Mbale................................. 71 Villages.............................. 72 "Yards"............................... 73 Migration and Settlement: Avalogoli History........................ 76 Ethnicity................................... 78 Economy..................................... 82 Notes on Avalogoli Traditions and Beliefs................... 84 Ideology of Patriarchy................... 84 / Ideal Marriage of Avalogoli.............. 87 Conclusion.................................. 90 Notes......... ............................ 92 4. WOMEN'S WORK.................................. 94 Home Work................................... 95 The Daily Routine........................ 97 The Annual Cycle......................... 99 Alternate Daily Work Patterns............ 100 Joyce................................. 105 Ritah................................. 108 Outside Work................................ 113 "Digging for Others"..................... 114 vii Estella 117 Florence.............................. 119 Entrepreneurs............................ 120 Jerida................................ 122 Erika................................. 126 Hawa.................................. 128 Full-Time Wage Labour.................... 130 Alice................................. 136 Flora................................. 138 Conclusion.................................. 142 Notes....................................... 144 5. BACK DOOR DECISIONS........................... 157 The House and the Yard...................... 158 Vika........................................ 165 / Reciprocal Obligations and Women's Power............................ 166 Marriage................................. 169 Ritah ................................ 176 Birth.................................... 178 Death.................................... 179 Land, Labour and Income..................... 181 Finasi................................ 183 State Politics and Women's Power............ 189 Conclusion.................................. 193 Esta........... 195 Notes....................................... 198 viii 6. THE TRANSFORMATION OF AVALOGOLI PATRIARCHY 211 Theoretical Issues.......................... 218 Conclusion.................................. 221 Notes....................................... 225 GLOSSARY.............................................. 22 6 WORKS CITED........................................... 230 / ix LIST OF MAPS Map Page 1. Kenya and Western Province........................ xi 2. Maragoli......................................... xii / x Map 1: Kenya and Western Province Map 2: Maragoli XII CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Women have forgotten their place and so have men. When the ancients went to war it was the men who went first, but it was the women who dragged the rocks. Without the rocks the men could not fight the war(February 17, 1988)1 The man is omwene hango, the commander, he is the owner, he is in charge. Although we all have a higher authority who makes the ultimate decisions, it is a man's duty to be in charge of his home, his wife, his children(Barnard November 17, 1987). This thesis is a study of women's power. It turns on a gendered approach to the subtle and complex arenas of women's power as exercised in economic, social and political spheres among the Avalogoli2 of Western Kenya. The Avalogoli live in an agrarian society integrated in a market economy within the confines of a capitalist state. Women's power emerges from this analysis as a vital organising principle in Avalogoli society. Patriarchy is a pronounced ideology of Avalogoli society. The power of men is taken for granted; both women and men say that it is predominant. This ideology has been reinforced in recent history by a British ideology of patriarchy which diffused to the Avalogoli through missionaries and colonials. The Kenyan state also legitimises a patriarchal ideology that is a mix of 1 2 tradition and capitalism. Women's power is decreased by mutually reinforcing spheres of similar ideologies. Women's power is both decreased and increased by the penetration of capitalism. In the past, the structural separation of Logoli women's and men's work gave women areas of power outside of men's control. The clear division between men's work and women's work has been eroded by capitalism. Population has increased, land resources have decreased and there is a heavy dependence on market economy. Women are required by necessity to confront these difficulties and to participate in areas of work that are