PDF hosted at the Radboud Repository of the Radboud University Nijmegen The following full text is a publisher's version. For additional information about this publication click this link. http://hdl.handle.net/2066/19253 Please be advised that this information was generated on 2021-09-29 and may be subject to change. An Arabic creole in Africa The Nubi language of Uganda een wetenschappelijke proeve op het gebied van de Letteren Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen op gezag van de Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr. C.W.P.M. Blom, volgens besluit van het College van Decanen in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 31 maart 2003 des namiddags om 1.30 uur precies door Inneke Hilda Werner Wellens geboren op 20 juni 1965 te Ekeren, België Promotores: Prof. Dr. C.H.M. Versteegh Prof. Dr. M. Woidich, Universiteit van Amsterdam Leden van de manuscriptcommissie: Prof. Dr. P.C. Muysken Prof. Dr. C.H.M. Gussenhoven Prof. Dr. H.J. Stroomer, Universiteit Leiden Contents List of tables..................................................................................................................................................... 6 Acknowledgements.......................................................................................................................................... 7 Abbreviations................................................................................................................................................... 8 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 9 1. H IST O R IC A L AND LIN G U ISTIC B A C K G R O U N D ............................................................10 1.1. Historical framework...............................................................................................................................10 1.1.1. The Sudan before 1820 ...................................................................................................................... 10 1.1.2. The Sudan from 1820 onwards............................................................................................................10 1.1.2.1. Occupation of the Sudan (1820-39) and conscription of black slaves into the army...................... 10 1.1.2.2. Commercial activities in southern Sudan: establishment of trading settlements (1840-1888)........14 1.1.2.3. Interaction between government and trading camps......................................................................17 1.1.2.4. The Mahdist revolt and its aftermath............................................................................................20 1.1.3. The Nubi in the twentieth century.......................................................................................................22 1.1.4. Conclusion......................................................................................................................................... 23 1.2. Linguistic background.............................................................................................................................24 1.2.1. Pidginization and creolization............................................................................................................. 25 1.2.2. The development of the Arabic p/c from a socio-linguistic viewpoint................................................. 25 1.2.2.1. The Arabic pidgin/creole language in the 19th century.................................................................25 1.2.2.2. At the turn of the century............................................................................................................. 29 1.2.2.3. In the twentieth century................................................................................................................ 34 1.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 34 2. P H O N O L O G Y ......................................................................................................................................36 2.1. Phonological segments.............................................................................................................................36 2.1.1. Consonants and semi-vowels.............................................................................................................. 36 2.1.1.1. Phonemes.....................................................................................................................................36 2.1.1.2. Consonant opposition pairs.......................................................................................................... 36 2.1.1.3. (Sub)phonemic variation.............................................................................................................. 37 2.1.2. Vowels............................................................................................................................................... 39 2.1.2.1. Phonemes.....................................................................................................................................39 2.1.2.2. Insertion of glide or glottal onset between two vowels..................................................................40 2.1.2.3. Vowel opposition pairs................................................................................................................ 41 2.1.3. Syllable types......................................................................................................................................41 2.1.4. Stress, pitch, and tone......................................................................................................................... 42 2.2. Phonological processes.............................................................................................................................43 2.2.1. Vowel elision......................................................................................................................................44 2.2.1.1. Vowel elision before consonants..................................................................................................44 2.2.1.2. Vowel elision before other vowels................................................................................................46 2.2.2. Assimilation........................................................................................................................................46 2.2.2.1. Vowel assimilation.......................................................................................................................47 2.2.2.2. Assimilation of voice................................................................................................................... 49 2.2.2.3. Assimilation of place................................................................................................................... 49 2.2.3. Other.................................................................................................................................................. 50 2.2.3.1. Addition of a final vowel............................................................................................................. 50 2.2.3.2. Consonant deletion....................................................................................................................... 50 2.2.3.3. Gemination/degemination............................................................................................................ 51 2 An Arabic creole in Africa: The Nubi language o f Uganda 2.3. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 51 3. T H E NOUN P H R A S E ........................................................................................................................ 52 3.1. Pronouns.................................................................................................................................................. 52 3.2. Nouns........................................................................................................................................................56 3.2.1. Number.............................................................................................................................................. 56 3.2.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................ 61 3.3. Modifiers.................................................................................................................................................. 61 3.3.1. Determiners.........................................................................................................................................61 3 .3 .11. Articles.........................................................................................................................................61 3.3.1.1.1. The indefinite article 'wai.......................................................................................................63 3.3.1.1.2. The definite article 'de........................................................................................................... 65 3.3.1.1.3. Bare nouns............................................................................................................................68