Faculty of Law Ghent University Academic Year 2013-2014 The Protection of Journalists in Armed Conflict Master Thesis of the ‘Master of Laws’ Submitted by Laura M.J. Fournier Student Number: 00900022 Promoter: Professor An Cliquet Co-reader: Cécile Vandewoude 2 Foreword ............................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 1 – INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 9 Title 1. The research goal of this master thesis ........................................................................ 9 Title 2. The importance of war journalism ............................................................................... 9 Title 3. The ever increasing vulnerability of war journalists ................................................ 10 Title 4. The conceptual framework, research methods and delimitations of this research 11 Section 1. The conceptual framework ..................................................................................... 11 1. ‘War journalists’ ............................................................................................................................. 11 2. ‘Armed conflict’ ............................................................................................................................. 12 2.1. ‘Armed conflict’ in the international legal framework ........................................................... 12 2.1.1. International human rights law ........................................................................................ 12 2.1.2. International humanitarian law ........................................................................................ 12 2.1.2.1. Definitions ................................................................................................................ 13 2.1.2.1.1. ‘International armed conflict’ ........................................................................... 13 2.1.2.1.2. ‘Non-international or national armed conflict’ ................................................. 14 2.1.2.2. Distinction between international and national armed conflict ................................ 15 2.2. Relevance of the term ‘armed conflict’ to this master thesis .................................................. 15 3. ‘Safety’ ........................................................................................................................................... 16 Section 2. Research methods ................................................................................................... 16 Section 3. Delimitations .......................................................................................................... 16 1. National versus international war journalists ................................................................................. 16 2. The ‘citizen journalist’ ................................................................................................................... 17 3. Journalist’s access to a state ........................................................................................................... 17 Chapter 2 – PROBLEMS AND DANGER WAR JOURNALISTS ENCOUNTER .. 19 Title 1. Types of problems war journalists encounter ........................................................... 19 Section 1. Deliberate targeting ................................................................................................ 19 Section 2. General violence in armed conflict zones .............................................................. 20 Title 2. Introduction to the numbers ....................................................................................... 20 Section 1. Journalists affected: who/where/by who? .............................................................. 20 1. Numbers and their evolution throughout the years ........................................................................ 20 1.1. Journalists who have been killed ............................................................................................ 20 1.2. Other dangers that journalists encounter ................................................................................. 27 2. Top of the iceberg ........................................................................................................................... 28 Section 2. Impunity ................................................................................................................. 29 Chapter 3 – LEGAL FRAMEWORK TO PROTECT WAR JOURNALISTS ......... 31 Title 1. Introduction .................................................................................................................. 31 Title 2. Current legal framework ............................................................................................. 31 Section 1. International human rights law ............................................................................... 32 1. Human rights of relevance to war journalists ................................................................................. 32 1.1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights .......................................................................... 33 1.2. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ...................................................... 33 1.2.1. Human rights of war journalists ...................................................................................... 33 1.2.2. Exceptions to the human rights of war journalists .......................................................... 34 1.2.2.1. Emergency clause ..................................................................................................... 34 1.2.2.2. Restriction to Article 19 of the ICCPR .................................................................... 35 1.2.2.3. Reservations ............................................................................................................. 36 1.3. The European Convention on Human Rights ......................................................................... 38 1.3.1. Human rights of war journalists ...................................................................................... 38 1.3.2. Exceptions to the human rights of war journalists .......................................................... 38 1.3.2.1. Emergency clause ..................................................................................................... 38 1.3.2.2. Restriction to Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights ................ 39 1.3.2.3. Reservations ............................................................................................................. 39 1.4. The American Convention on Human Rights ......................................................................... 39 1.5. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights ............................................................. 40 2. What with media infrastructure? .................................................................................................... 41 Section 2. International humanitarian law .............................................................................. 41 3 1. Protection of war journalists in international humanitarian law .................................................... 42 1.1. Conventional international humanitarian law ......................................................................... 42 1.1.1. International armed conflict ............................................................................................. 43 1.1.1.1. ‘Freelance’ journalists .............................................................................................. 43 1.1.1.1.1. Who? ................................................................................................................. 43 1.1.1.1.2. Conditional protection as civilians ................................................................... 43 1.1.1.1.3. Protection upon capture .................................................................................... 44 1.1.1.1.4. Identity card ...................................................................................................... 45 1.1.1.2. War correspondents .................................................................................................. 45 1.1.1.2.1. Who? ................................................................................................................. 45 1.1.1.2.2. Conditional protection as civilians ................................................................... 46 1.1.1.2.3. Special protection upon capture: “prisoners of war” ........................................ 46 1.1.1.2.4. Identity card ...................................................................................................... 47 1.1.2. Non-international armed conflict ..................................................................................... 47 1.1.2.1. Conditional protection as civilians ........................................................................... 48 1.1.2.2. Protection upon capture ............................................................................................ 48 1.2. Customary international humanitarian law ............................................................................. 49 1.2.1. Additional norms regarding non-international armed conflict ........................................ 49 1.2.1.1. Conditional protection as civilians ..........................................................................