An Exploration of the Social Construction of Child Abuse in Mainland China: a Qualitative Study of the Perceptions of University Students, Young Parents and Social Workers Tian Tian Master of Philosophy University of York Social Policy and Social Work July 2016 Abstract In Mainland China, there is neither an official definition nor a dominating perception of child abuse. A culturally responsive definition of child abuse is influenced by differences in child- rearing practices and deviant abusive disciplinary behaviours (Korbin, 1997). To explore this definition, the present study focuses on the social construction of child abuse in China. Qualitative methods were applied with fourteen focus group discussions and four in-depth interviews with vignettes conducted in both urban and rural China with young parents, university students and professional social workers to explore child physical and emotional abuse within the family. Three major findings were revealed. First, the boundaries and grey areas between appropriate family discipline and unacceptable child abuse for various specific family-discipline behaviours are explored. There were two layers in this perspective: firstly, all participants considered child abuse as a behaviour which might cause significant physical harm (leaving serious scars or marks). Secondly, the contested territory between discipline and abuse in China lies in the use of instruments to beat children or slapping them on the face, which is different from the current mainstream western academic argument on the need to ban all forms of physical punishment including spanking (Leviner, 2013). Second, emotional abuse has not yet been recognised in China. Nevertheless, participants understood and paid more attention to emotional harm than has been found in previous studies (Qiao, 2012). Third, parents tended to identify child abuse as severe and continuous harmful physical behaviour inflicted with bad intentions, and students shared a similar perception but paid more attention to emotional harm. For a brief conclusion and policy implication, a clearer and more practical application of child abuse definition should be provided by legal regulations, it is suggested to begin with prohibition of physical discipline with instruments and slapping on the face in current China. 2 Table of Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................................... 2 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................................................ 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................................... 8 DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP .......................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 11 1.1 THINKING INSPIRED BY THE CONCEPT OF TIGER MOTHER AND WOLF FATHER ........................................................ 11 1.2 PROBLEMS WITH THE UNDER-RESEARCHED SOCIAL UNDERSTANDING OF FAMILY DISCIPLINE AND CHILD ABUSE 13 1.3 RESEARCH SUBJECTS, PURPOSE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH ................................................................... 16 1.3.1 RESEARCH SUBJECTS ................................................................................................................................................ 16 1.3.2 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE AND RESEARCH APPROACH.......................................................................................... 17 1.4 THE STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS .................................................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION THEORY ................................................................................. 21 2.1.1 THE CONSTRUCTION OF ‘CHILD’ AND ‘CHILDHOOD’ ............................................................................................ 23 2.1.2 EXPLORATION OF CHILDREN’S RIGHTS THEORY .................................................................................................... 26 2.1.2.1 Moral and Legal Conceptions of Rights ..................................................................... 27 2.1.2.2 The Development and Critique of Children’s Rights Theory ................................ 28 2.1.2.3 The UNCRC and the Best Interest of the Child ......................................................... 31 2.1.3 APPROACHES TO PARENTING, CHILD DISCIPLINE AND CHILD ABUSE ................................................................. 32 2.1.3.1 Parenting: Key Concept .................................................................................................. 33 2.1.3.2 Relations between Child Discipline and Child Abuse .............................................. 38 2.2 CHILD ABUSE IN CHINA ................................................................................................................................................. 40 2.2.1 THE CHANGING CHINA AND CHINESE FAMILIES ................................................................................................... 41 2.2.2 CHILD ABUSE AND MALTREATMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF CHINESE HISTORY .................................................... 43 2.2.3 CULTURAL FACTORS IN CHINA ................................................................................................................................ 44 2.2.3.1 The Influential Factor of Family Members’ Relationships ...................................... 45 2.2.4 POWER RELATIONSHIPS INSIDE THE FAMILY ........................................................................................................... 45 2.2.5 POLICY AND LAW IN CHINA .................................................................................................................................... 49 2.2.6 THE DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT OF SOCIAL WORK ......................................................... 51 3 2.3 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................................................ 52 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................................... 53 METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ............................................................................................................................................... 53 3.1 FIELDWORK (FOCUS GROUPS AND INTERVIEWS WITH VIGNETTES) ......................................................................... 55 3.1.1 FOCUS GROUPS ............................................................................................................................................................... 55 3.1.2 IN-DEPTH INTERVIEWS ................................................................................................................................................... 57 3.1.3 USING VIGNETTES ........................................................................................................................................................... 57 3.1.3.1 Design of the vignettes ......................................................................................................... 58 3.1.3.2 Case variations within the vignettes .................................................................................. 59 3.1.4 METHODS: DATA COLLECTION...................................................................................................................................... 60 3.1.4.1 Selection of Participants........................................................................................................ 60 3.1.4.2 Definition of Sampling .......................................................................................................... 60 3.1.5 SAMPLING AND RECRUITMENT ...................................................................................................................................... 64 3.1.6 RESEARCH PROCESS ....................................................................................................................................................... 67 3.1.6.1 Procedure of the focus groups ............................................................................................ 69 3.1.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION ........................................................................................................................... 71 3.2 ETHICAL AND LEGAL ISSUES ............................................................................................................................................ 72 3.2.1 INFORMED CONSENT ...................................................................................................................................................... 73 3.2.2 MEASURES TO ELIMINATE OR MINIMISE POTENTIAL RISKS TO PARTICIPANTS