water Article Quality of Drinking Water in the Balkhash District of Kazakhstan’s Almaty Region Sabir Nurtazin 1, Steven Pueppke 2,3,4,* , Temirkhan Ospan 1, Azamat Mukhitdinov 5 and Timur Elebessov 1 1 Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 al-Farabi Avenue, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan; [email protected] (S.N.); [email protected] (T.O.); [email protected] (T.E.) 2 Center for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies, Michigan State University, 427 North Shaw Lane, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA 3 Center for Global Change and Earth Observations, Michigan State University, 1405 South Harrison Road, East Lansing, MI 48823, USA 4 Asia Hub, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China 5 Faculty of Geography and Environmental Sciences, al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 al-Farabi Avenue, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-269-888-1150 Received: 28 December 2019; Accepted: 28 January 2020; Published: 1 February 2020 Abstract: The thinly populated Balkhash District of Kazakhstan’s Almaty Region lies in the lower reaches of the Ili-Balkhash basin, which is shared by China and Kazakhstan. The district is arid and heavily dependent on inflows of surface water, which are threatened by the effects of upstream population growth, economic development, and climate change. The quality of drinking water from centralized water systems and tube wells in nine villages of the district was analyzed, and the organoleptic properties of water from these sources was also assessed by an expert and via surveys of local residents. Although most samples met governmental standards for the absence of chemical impurities, high concentrations of mineralization, chlorides, boron, iron, and/or uranium were present in some well water samples. Levels of these pollutants were as much as 4-fold higher than governmental maxima and as much as 16-fold higher than concentrations reported previously in surface water. All centralized water samples met standards for absence of microbial contamination, but total microbial counts in some well water samples exceeded standards. Organoleptic standards were met by all the water from five villages, but centralized water from one village and well water from four villages failed to meet standards based on expert judgment. Residents were, for the most part, more satisfied with centralized rather than well water, but there was no obvious relationship between the failure of water to meet standards and the locations or populations of the settlements. This is the first comprehensive assessment of groundwater used for drinking in the lower Ili-Balkhash basin, and although it relies on a limited number of samples, it nevertheless provides evidence of potentially serious groundwater contamination in the Balkhash District. It is thus imperative that additional and more detailed studies be undertaken. Keywords: water quality; rural Kazakhstan; Ili-Balkhash basin; organoleptic analysis of groundwater; risk identification and assessment 1. Introduction Although a sustainable and affordable supply of high-quality drinking water is one of the most important priorities in the modern world, many populated areas do not have adequate access to water and modern water purification technologies [1]. The Republic of Kazakhstan and other countries that Water 2020, 12, 392; doi:10.3390/w12020392 www.mdpi.com/journal/water Water 20202019,, 1211,, 392x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 14 countries that emerged from the former Soviet Union are among those facing such challenges [2–4]. Aboutemerged 80% from of Kazakhs the formertan Soviet’s territory Union is located are among in athose climatic facing and such geographical challenges zone [2–4 of]. Aboutdeserts, 80% semi of- deserts,Kazakhstan’s and dry territory steppes is located[5]. The in hydrographic a climatic and network geographical in these zone arid of areas deserts, is meager semi-deserts, and subject and dry to significantlysteppes [5]. fluctuating The hydrographic inflows. networkA shortage in of these fresh arid water areas has is thus meager become and one subject of the to most significantly pressing environmentalfluctuating inflows. problem A shortages impeding of fresh sustainable water has development thus become oneof the of thecountry. most pressingAcute water environmental scarcity is problemsconsequently impeding recognized sustainable as Kazakhstan’s development fourth of most the country. important Acute global water challenge scarcity of the is consequently 21st century [recognized6]. as Kazakhstan’s fourth most important global challenge of the 21st century [6]. The problem of water supply i inn Kazakhstan is exacerbated exacerbated by the the disadvantageous disadvantageous geographical position of the country, which is located in the downstream areas of several important important transboundary transboundary river basins basins [7,8 [7,8].]. Among Among them them is the is theIli-Balkhash Ili-Balkhash basin, basin, the main the maincatchment catchment area of area which of is which located is inlocated the Xinjiang in the XinjiangUyghur Autonomous Uyghur Autonomous Region of Region China [ of8– China10]. In [contrast,8–10]. In the contrast, downstream the downstream reaches of thereaches Ili River of the and Ili its River final and destinatio its finaln, destination,Lake Balkhash, Lake are Balkhash, situated in are the situated deserts in of the southeastern deserts of Kazakhstansoutheastern (Fig Kazakhstanure 1). In recent (Figure decades,1). In recent water decades,consumption water has consumption been growing has in been the Chinese growing part in ofthe th Chinesee Ili-Balkhash part of thebasin Ili-Balkhash against a basin background against aof background rapid population of rapid populationgrowth and growth economic and developmenteconomic development [8,11,12]. Kazakhstan, [8,11,12]. Kazakhstan, on the other on hand, the other is experiencing hand, is experiencing a difficult a period difficult of periodsocio- econoof socio-economicmic transformatio transformationn that aggravates that aggravates problems problems of the use, of the distribution, use, distribution, and pollution and pollution of water of waterresources, resources, including including those in those the inIli- theBalkhash Ili-Balkhash basin. basin. Figure 1. Kazakhstan’sKazakhstan’s Balkhas Balkhashh District District.. The The large large map map identifies identifies the borders and chief geographical features of the district, as well as Lake Balkhash and the settlements studied here. The district is boxed and shown in red in the inset, which gives its locationlocation inin thethe southeasternsoutheastern partpart ofof thethe country.country. The need to p providerovide Kazakhstan Kazakhstan with water resources resources places significant demands on both water quantityquantity and quality, butbut muchmuch of t thehe republic’s water supply and managem managementent system has existed since SovietSoviet timestimes and and is is now now physically physically obsolete obsolete and and in need in n ofeed thorough of thorough modernization. modernization. These These issues issuehaves created have created tension tension and a sense and ofa sense urgency, of whichurgency, is reflectedwhich is in reflected a series ofin presidentiala series of presidential decrees and decreesgovernmental and governmental decisions [2,13 decisions–17]. These [2, documents13–17]. These commit documents the government commit to the allocate government significant to financialallocate significantresources to financial improve theresources water supply to improve system andthe waterwater management supply system infrastructure and water in citiesmanagement and rural infrastructureareas, but these in improvements cities and rural have areas, not alwaysbut these been improvements implemented, have and furthernot always investment been implemented, is required. and furThether current investm statusent and is required the main. risks and problems of water supply and quality in rural settlements of Kazakhstan’sThe current Balkhashstatus and District the main are assessed risks and here problems as an example of water of thesupply Republic’s and quality water resourcein rural settlementschallenges. of The Kazakhstan’s Balkhash District Balkhash is located District between are assessed 44–47 here◦ N andas an 73–77 example◦ E in of Kazakhstan’s the Republic’s Almaty water resource challenges. The Balkhash District is located between 44–47° N and 73–77° E in Kazakhstan’s Almaty Region. It lies in the lower part of the Ili-Balkhash basin and within the South Balkhash Water 2020, 12, 392 3 of 14 Region. It lies in the lower part of the Ili-Balkhash basin and within the South Balkhash depression, which extends from the Malay Sary ridge to the shore of Lake Balkhash, a large endorheic lake with a surface area of more than 16,000 km2 [18]. The Balkhash District includes the Ili River delta, which is the largest in Central Asia and a site of unique biodiversity, with two protected areas of international importance, namely the Altyn-Emel National Park and the Ili-Balkhash Reserve [19]. The Balkhash District receives little rainfall (100–150 mm/year) and experiences a high level of potential evapotranspiration that exceeds 1000 mm/year [5]. The climate is distinctly continental, with characteristically large day/night and summer/winter temperature differentials [9,20]. Winters are cold with little snow, and summers are dry and hot. The scattered