University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/73929 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony in the Agri-Food System in Thailand (1990-2014) by Prapimphan Chiengkul A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics and International Studies University of Warwick, Department of Politics and International Studies July 2015 Table of Contents Acknowledgements i Declaration and Inclusion of Material from a Prior Thesis i Abstract ii-iii Abbreviations iv-vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Impetus to research 1 Central research question 5 Original contributions to knowledge 7 Theory and methodology 17 Summary of the main arguments 29 Chapter outline 31 Chapter 2: Dynamics of the Global Capitalist Agri-Food System 36 Problems of the mainstream capitalist agri-food system 37 A critique of neo-classical economics and neo-liberal ideologies 46 Neo-Marxist critique of the capitalist agri-food system 53 Hegemony and counter-hegemony in the agri-food system 62 Insights from other theoretical perspectives 78 Chapter 3: Hegemony in the Agri-Food System in Thailand 85 Hegemonic agri-food production-distribution in Thailand 86 Governance structure of the hegemonic agri-food system in Thailand 121 Hegemonic ideational order of the agri-food system in Thailand 137 Chapter 4: Counter-Hegemony and Co-optation of Oppositions 152 in the Agri-food System in Thailand Counter-hegemony in the agri-food system in Thailand 153 Co-optation of oppositions in the agri-food system in Thailand 163 Chapter 5: The Sustainable Agriculture Movement in Thailand 182 Counter-hegemonic ideas and discourses 184 Counter-hegemonic production-distribution practices 208 Counter-hegemonic agri-food governance structures 242 Grey areas and co-optation of oppositions 264 Chapter 6: The Land Reform Movement in Thailand 287 Counter-hegemonic ideas and discourses 289 Counter-hegemonic governance of land 301 Counter-hegemonic production-distribution practices 322 Current obstacles and the possibility of co-optation of oppositions 331 Chapter 7: Conclusion 348 Central research question and summary of main arguments 348 Summary of contributions to knowledge 349 Reflections on research design and process 355 Reflections on future areas of research 357 Appendix 1: Sustainable Agriculture Groups in Thailand 361 Appendix 2: Community Land Title Deed Groups in Thailand 369 Bibliography 372 A List of Interviews 424 Email Correspondents 430 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my family for their support, particularly my parents, my grandmother and my aunts. In addition, I would like to thank all the interviewees who sacrificed their time for this research, my supervisor for his guidance and kindness, the Thai Office of the Higher Education Commission for my scholarship, and dear friends who have supported me throughout the research process. Declaration and Inclusion of Material from a Prior Thesis This thesis is the candidate's own work. It has not been submitted for a degree at any other university. Earlier drafts of some chapters have been presented by the candidate as conference papers between 2012 and 2015, but the papers have not been published. i Abstract This thesis has two main objectives: (1) to provide a critical political economy study of local-global interlinkages and structural problems of the current agri-food system, using a case study of Thailand; and (2) to explore the possibilities that the current agri-food system can be transformed towards more socially and ecologically sustainable paths. With these two objectives in mind, the thesis asks the central research question: "How have hegemonic and counter-hegemonic forces shaped the agri-food system in Thailand (1990 to 2014)?" The thesis uses a combined neo- Marxist and Gramscian theoretical framework, as well as English and Thai primary and secondary sources. Overall, 87 interviews from 7 provinces in the North, Central, South and Northeastern regions of Thailand are used in this thesis. The thesis argues four main points: (1) that the mainstream agri-food system in Thailand has been shaped to aid capital accumulation by domestic and transnational hegemonic forces, and is sustained through hegemonic agri-food production-distribution, governance structures and ideational order; (2) that the Thai sustainable agriculture and land reform movements' counter-hegemonic ideas, production-distribution practices, and governance structures have managed to influence the agri-food system in Thailand and offer alternatives to certain extents; (3) that hegemonic forces have many measures to co-opt dissent, alternative and reformist forces into hegemonic structures; and (4) that counter-hegemony should be seen as an un-linear ongoing process over a long period of time, where predominantly counter-hegemonic forces may at times retain some hegemonic elements. The threat of co-optation suggests that counter-hegemonic forces need to ii continually refine and develop clear ideas and practices in order to guard against co- optation. The thesis makes six main original contributions to knowledge. First, it brings new empirical information from the Thai case study into existing literatures on the corporate agri-food system and agrarian political economy. Second, the thesis brings new empirical information from Thailand into existing literatures on alternative agri-food and agrarian movements. Third, the research extends neo- Marxist and Gramscian theoretical perspectives in the study of the agri-food system. Fourth, the dissertation provides new perspectives as well as recent data on Thai agrarian development and social movements. Fifth, the work provides new perspectives as well as recent data on practices and discourses of Thai localism. Sixth and finally, the thesis provides a new perspective on polarised politics in Thailand. Empirical exploration of the agri-food system in Thailand supports the thesis' argument that transformative change in the agri-food system can appropriately be seen as an un-linear process over a long period of time, which challenges agri-food studies from the Marxist tradition which tend to focus on "crisis and change". Through the combined neo-Marxist and Gramscian theoretical approach, the thesis suggests the importance of counter-hegemonic struggles at ideational and material levels, and that social movements do not necessarily have to resemble stereotypical images of politicised, structured, and leftist national movements. Moreover, by providing new perspectives on Thai localism and polarised politics in Thailand, particularly how cross-class alliances can further or frustrate counter-hegemonic movements, this thesis points to the importance of analysing social movements in relation to established political authority. iii Abbreviations AAN Alternative Agriculture Network ACIA ASEAN Comprehensive Investment Agreement ACMECS Aeyawadee-Chaopraya-Mekong Economic Co-operation ADB Asian Development Bank ALRO Agricultural Land Reform Office ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations BAAC Bank for Agriculture and Agricultural Cooperatives BioThai Biodiversity & Community Rights Action Thailand BOI Board of Investment CAE Community of Agro-Ecology Foundation CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CLTD community land title deed CP Charoen Pokapand Group CPB Crown Property Bureau CSA Community Supported Agriculture DAE Department of Agricultural Extensions FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation FLO Fairtrade Labeling Organisation International FTA Free Trade Agreement GAP Good Agricultural Practice GDP Gross Domestic Product GM genetically modified GSP Generalised System of Preferences iv HYV High Yielding Varieties IAASTD International Assessment of Agricultural Knowledge, Science and Technology for Development ICARRD International Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements IMF International Monetary Fund IPE International Political Economy ISAC Institute for a Sustainable Agriculture Community LDD Land Development Department LRM land reform movement MOAC Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives MST Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra [Landless Rural Workers Movement] NACC National Anti-Corruption Commission NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NESDB National Economic and Social Development Board NGO non-governmental organisation OAE Office of Agricultural Economics OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PAD People's Alliance for Democracy PDRC People's Democratic Reform Committee PFT Peasants' Federation of Thailand PRAI Principles for Responsible Agricultural Investment RFD Royal Forestry Department v SAM sustainable agriculture movement SAO Sub-district Administrative Organisation SATHAI Sustainable Agriculture Thailand Foundation TDRI Thailand Development Research Institute TRF Thailand Research Fund TRIPS Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRT Thai Rak Thai Party UDD United Front for Democracy Against Dictatorship UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development