SWORDS INTO PLOWSHARES: CIVILIAN APPLICATION OF WARTIME MILITARY TECHNOLOGY IN MODERN JAPAN, 1945-1964 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University By Takashi Nishiyama, M.A. The Ohio State University 2005 Dissertation Committee: Professor James R. Bartholomew, Adviser Approved by Professor Philip C. Brown _____________________________ Professor John. F. Guilmartin, Jr. Graduate Program in History ABSTRACT This dissertation examines civilian application of military technology in Japan after World War II. As a case study, I focus on the historical metamorphosis of wartime technology ― such as military aircraft deployed for kamikaze suicide missions― into the highly successful Shinkansen high-speed bullet train. In retrospect, the shift in the socio-technological landscape in Japan after 1945 was drastic, spectacular, and unprecedentedly successful. Employing a bottom-up approach, I highlight the decentralized character of Japan’s conversion process from wartime to postwar eras. Specifically, I examine the roles of former military engineers in the public research and development sector at the grass roots-level. The crucial variable in the conversion process, I argue, was the remarkable adaptability and flexibility of these engineers and their knowledge, especially in support of Japan’s technological development. The course of the technological transformation was neither obvious nor preordained. It was largely idiosyncratic and contingent on numerous individual decisions and actions within the engineering community. At least the bullet train and other modern technological artifacts were a product of such ii development; postwar technological artifacts were essentially amalgamations, reproductions, and reconfigurations of pre-1945 technologies with little orchestrated effort from the top. The postwar conversion went beyond a mere shuffling of human and financial resources. Many efforts came from grass-roots activities among engineers. The society as a whole beat swords into plowshares, renouncing war with peace-oriented technology. iii Dedicated to my parents, Kiyoshi and Keiko Nishiyama iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to those many scholars in the United States and Japan who have provided me with insightful observations, constructive criticism, and friendly encouragement. My dissertation committee members were always the chief source of the support. Much of the credit and my deepest appreciation go in particular to my academic advisor, Dr. James Bartholomew. He let me pursue my research freely all along; in so doing, he listened to my research reports with great patience and directed me to the right path with encouragement and timely advice. He kindly and carefully reviewed this manuscript, and his support often went beyond what is ordinarily expected of professors. For months in Japan, I lacked financial means even to mail hard copies to my committee members for review. Dr. Bartholomew printed what I had sent him via e-mail, meticulously reviewed the text although it required substantial editing, and mailed me the hard copy with his comments that filled each page. He completed each chapter in two weeks or so, while he stayed in Kyoto for his one-year research at his own expense! He is my mentor to whom I owe an inexpressibly huge debt of gratitude. v This dissertation is a product of encouragement and unfailing support from other professors as well. In and out of class, Dr. Philip Brown amply demonstrated his paternal concerns. His feedback was always specific and constructive; his acumen stimulated my thinking throughout this project. He also accepted my electronic submission of each chapter, and kindly offered his feedback in print. Without his encouragement and advice in my preparation for grant proposals, my research trip to Japan would have been simply impossible. Likewise Dr. John Guilmartin Jr. always supported my research emotionally, intellectually, and professionally. His inborn optimism and great sense of humor were a source of wisdom and encouragement. I enjoyed visiting him during his office hours on Wednesdays. His unfathomable depth of knowledge about naval and aeronautical engineering was staggering, and my work benefited greatly from it. Dr. Walter Grunden, my respected senpai, offered his advice and collection of valuable documents at various stages of my dissertation writing. My research in Japan was possible with the unfailing support from others to whom I am equally indebted. Dr. Takehiko Hashimoto cordially hosted my stay at the Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, the University of Tokyo. My dissertation gained a lot from his deep insight and wide knowledge about aeronautical engineering and engineers in and out of Japan. He directed me to a large number of both official and unofficial Japanese sources, some of vi which had remained classified until the time of my inquiry. He let me present parts of my dissertation and test my ideas before him and his highly competent graduate students. His kenkyūshitsu was an intellectually stimulating environment. Dr. Itō Kenji kindly offered insightful and valuable observations there, making me think critically about my dissertation and my fields of study. Dr. Kim Boumsoung stimulated my thinking about some crucial issues during our jocular chats. During lunch and after my presentations, Dr. Matsumoto Miwao kindly suggested how I could develop my ideas in a more meaningful manner. Drs. Yamazaki Masakatsu and Kaji Masanori introduced me to their graduate students circle and colleagues within and outside the Tokyo Institute of Technology. Drs. Kawamura Yutaka and Koyama Tōru always surprised me with their physical possessions of extremely rare documents of historical importance. I am grateful to them for kindly sharing their valuable resources with me. My extensive research in Japan required financial support. The National Science Foundation and the Smithsonian Air &Space Museum kindly funded my archival research, interviews, and research trips in Japan. Without these major grants, this project would have been delayed considerably or, in all likelihood, impossible. The Mershon Center and the history department at the Ohio State University also helped me finance various research expenses incurred during my stay in Japan. These institutions did not preclude my chance of obtaining vii requisite financial resources even though I lacked lack U.S. citizenship or resident alien status. I appreciate their generosity; I thank them for giving me a chance and the financial means necessary to complete this project. Last but not least, I am grateful to those who supported me from outside academia with kindness and love. In particular, Mr. and Mrs. Greene always showered me with the encouragement and emotional support I needed. With grace, forgiveness, and love, they treated me as one of their sons during my graduate work in Ohio. Above all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents, Kiyoshi and Keiko Nishiyama. They continually demonstrated patience, perseverance, and unconditional love. I thank them from the bottom of my heart, and dedicate my work to them. viii VITA December 16, 1969……………………… Born-Odawara, Japan B.A. International Studies, The Ohio State 1993……………………………………… University 1993-1995………………….……………. M.A. History, The Ohio State University 1997-2002………………….……………. Graduate Teaching and Research Associate, The Ohio State University 2002-2004….……………………………. Visiting Researcher, Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan PUBLICATIONS 1. “Gijutsu kaihatsu to soshiki un’ei ni okeru ‘masatsu’”(‘Friction’ between Technological Development and System Management in Japan: Development of High-Speed Rail Service as a Case Study) Nenpō: Kagaku, gijutsu, shakai (Japan Journal for Science, Technology, and Society) volume 13 (2004), 1-23. ix 2. “Frameworks for the Growth of Aircraft Design Knowledge in Japan: Horikoshi Jirō (1903-1940) as a Case Study,” Kagakushi kagaku tetsugaku (History and Philosophy of Science) volume 18 (2004), 119-137. 3. “Cross-disciplinary Technology Transfer in Trans-World War II Japan: The Japanese High-Speed Bullet Train as a Case Study” Comparative Technology Transfer and Society volume 1, number 3 (December 2003), 305-325. 4. “Aeronautical Technology for Pilot Safety: Re-examining Deck-Landing Aircraft in Great Britain, Japan, and the United States,” Historia Scientiarum volume 13, number 1 (July 2003), 13-32. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Fields: Japanese History Minor Fields: Diplomatic History and Military History x TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………... ii Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………... iv Acknowledgements ……………………………………………………………………. V Vita……………………………………………………………………………………... Ix List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………… Xiii List of Figures………………………………………………………………….............. Xiv CHAPTERS: 1. Introduction ……………………………………………………….................................. 1 1.1 Historical Issues ………………….................................................... 3 1.2 Approach …………………………………………………… 9 1.3 Sources …………………………………………………… 21 2. Integrating wartime experience in postwar Japan, 1945-1952……………………………. 27 2.1 Experiences of wartime aeronautical engineers, 1945-1952: Case studies……………………………………………………………………… 29 2.2 Containment of wartime brains………………………………………... 36 2.3 Whereabouts of military engineers at home: Japan National Railways (JNR), 1945-1952………………………………………………………….