Myanmar’s Education Reforms Myanmar’s Education Reforms A pathway to social justice? Marie Lall First published in 2020 by UCL Press University College London Gower Street London WC1E 6BT Available to download free: www.uclpress.co.uk Text © Author, 2021 Images © Author and copyright holders named in captions, 2021 Marie Lall has asserted her rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to be identified as the author of this work. A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from The British Library. This book is published under a Creative Commons 4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0). This licence allows you to share, copy, distribute and transmit the work; to adapt the work and to make commercial use of the work providing attribution is made to the authors (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information: Lall, M. 2020. Myanmar’s Education Reforms: A pathway to social justice? London: UCL Press. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787353695 Further details about Creative Commons licences are available at http://creative commons.org/licenses/ Any third-party material in this book is published under the book’s Creative Commons licence unless indicated otherwise in the credit line to the material. If you would like to re-use any third-party material not covered by the book’s Creative Commons licence, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. ISBN: 978-1-78735-404-3 (Hbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-387-9 (Pbk.) ISBN: 978-1-78735-369-5 (PDF) ISBN: 978-1-78735-410-4 (epub) ISBN: 978-1-78735-416-6 (mobi) DOI: https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787353695 For those who were part of this 16-year research journey: the Egress sisterhood – Nan Theingi, Khin Moe Samm, Thei Su San, Phyo Thandar and my Myanmar family – Aung Htun, Nwe Nwe San and their daughter Mia. Figure 0.1 Khin Moe Samm, Phyo Thandar, Nan Theingi and Nwe Nwe San at Thei Su San’s wedding, Yangon, 2015. Source: Author. Contents List of figures and tables ix List of abbreviations xi Acknowledgements xix Introduction 1 1 The state of education, pre-reform 30 2 Education reform and effects on basic education 58 3 The alternative: Monastic education 101 4 Higher education: Towards international standards in a neo-liberal world 130 5 Teacher education and training: Is changing practice possible? 159 6 Ethnic education: Language and local curriculum issues 197 7 Ethnic education: Recognising alternative systems run by ethnic armed organisations 238 Conclusion: Whither social justice in Myanmar? 273 References 286 Index 297 CONTENTS vii List of figures and tables Figures 0.1 Khin Moe Samm, Phyo Thandar, Nan Theingi and Nwe Nwe San at Thei Su San’s wedding, Yangon, 2015 v 0.2 Map of Myanmar 2 2.1 Rural government school, 2014 63 2.2 Education protests, 2015 72 2.3 Leadership and management seminars for informed decision making for the Ministry of Education, 2019 83 3.1 Monastic school, 2010 109 3.2 Monastic teacher training: Network of CCA trainers, 2010 114 3.3 Phaung Daw Oo Monastic School, 2010 teachers’ focus group discussion 115 3.4 Monastic school parents Yangon Region, 2010 parents’ focus group discussion 117 3.5 Monastic school in Mandalay, 2010 121 4.1 Transforming Higher Education Programme, senior management from 11 Universities, 2018 136 4.2 First National Higher Education Conference with Minister of Education, 2018 136 4.3 Second National Higher Education Conference, 2018: Building Quality and Equity in Higher Education 149 6.1 Ethnic education representatives meet Comprehensive Education Sector Review (CESR) team, 2013 202 6.2 Conversation with the Akha community, 2018 222 6.3 Members of the Dainet community, 2018 225 6.4 Members of the PNO, PDN, PWEF and PLCO with Daw Aye Aye Tun, 2016 226 6.5 Shan State Pa-O Teacher Education College, 2018 227 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ix 7.1 Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) ceremony 2015 with General Min Aung Hlaing on the screen as he prepares to sign 245 7.2 Mon National School, 2013 248 7.3 Shan language books developed by the Shan Literature and Culture Associations (LCA) 253 7.4 Kaw Dai, Shan State, 2018 257 7.5 Kachin State non-government teacher workshop, 2015 263 7.6 Joint MNEC and Mon SEO workshop 2018, led by Viren Lall with Mi Kun Chan Non translating 265 Tables 6.1 Adult literacy rates by sex, urban and rural areas, states/regions, 2014 Census 212 6.2 School attendance rates by age, sex, states/regions, 2014 Census 213 6.3 Proportion of population aged 25 and over with no schooling by sex, urban and rural areas, states/ regions, 2014 Census 214 6.4 Children aged 7–15 by school attendance, states/ regions, 2014 Census 215 6.5 Percentage of population aged 25 and over by highest completed level of education by sex, states/regions, 2014 Census 217 7.1 Typology of ethnic schools 242 x MYANMAR’S EDUCATION REFORMS List of abbreviations AANZFTA ASEAN–Australia/New Zealand Free Trade Area ABSFU All Burma Federation of Students’ Unions ACDE Action Committee for Democratic Education ADB Asian Development Bank ADRA Adventist Development and Relief Agency ANP Arakan National Party APEF Asia Peace and Education Foundation APR Annual Progress Review(s) AQRF ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASL Athletic, Stationary and Library ATEO Assistant Township Education Officers AUN – ASEAN University Network AUN-QA ASEAN University Network Quality Assurance Framework AUN ASEAN University Network AUSAID (now Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade – DFAT) AY Academic Year BC British Council BCP Burmese Communist Party BGF Border Guard Force, BIM Burnet Institute Myanmar BUPE Burma UK Partnership for Education CBO Community Based Organisation CCA Child-Centred Approaches (in Education) CCRP COVID-19 Comprehensive Relief Plan CDF Capacity Development Fund CDT Curriculum Development Team CESR Comprehensive Education Sector Review CLC Community Learning Centre CPD Continuous Professional Development CPME Centre for the Promotion of Monastic Education LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi CREATE Curriculum Reform at Primary Level of Basic Education CRED Centre for Rural Education and Development CSO Civil Society Organisations CTUM Confederation of Trade Unions – Myanmar DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DASSK Daw Aung San Suu Kyi DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DBE Department of Basic Education DDGs Deputy Director Generals DEO District Education Office/r(s) DEPT Department of Educational Planning and Training DERPT Department of Education Research, Planning and Training DFAT Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia) DFID Department for International Development (UK) DG Director General DHE Department of Higher Education DKBA Democratic Karen Benevolent/Buddhist Army DMER Department of Myanmar Education Research DPCG Development Partner Coordination Group DTEd Diploma in Teacher Education DTET Department of Teacher Education and Training DWT Daily Wage Teachers EAG Ethnic Armed Groups EAO Ethnic Armed Organisations EBEP Ethnic Basic Education Providers ECCD Early Childhood Care and Development ECCE Early Childhood Centres for Education EDGE Education Directory and Guide for Everyone EFA Education for All EfECT English for Education College Trainers EMIS Education Management Information System(s) EPIC Education Promotion Implementation Committee ES4E English Skills for Everyone ESCC Education Sector Coordination Committee ESRC Education Sector Reform Contract ETWG Education Technical Working Group EYE Equipping Youth for Employment Project FESR Framework for Social and Economic Reforms FGD Focus Group Discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product GEI Gender Inequality Index xii MYANMAR’S EDUCATION REFORMS GER Gross Enrolment Ratio(s) GESI Gender Equality and Social Inclusion GIZ Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German Corporation for International Cooperation) GPE Global Partnership for Education HDI Human Development Index HE Higher Education HEI Higher Education Institution HES Higher Education Subsector HRD Human Resource Development IBE International Bureau of Education ICJ International Court of Justice ICT Information and Communication Technology IDP Internally Displaced person/ people IGA Income Generating Activities IHLCA Integrated Household Living Conditions Assessment IHLCS Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey ILAS Institute of Liberal Arts and Sciences ILBC International Language and Business Centre ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund INGOs International Non-governmental Organisation INSET In-service and teacher education IoE Institute(s) of Education IPE Irrawaddy Policy Exchange IT Information Technology JAT Junior Assistant Teachers JESWG Joint Education Sector Working Group JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KAS Konrad Adenauer Stiftung KDA Kachin Defense Army KEC Kachin Education Consortium KED Karen Education Department KESAG Karen State Education Assistance Group KG Kindergarten KHRG Karen Human Rights Group KIA Kachin Independence Army KIO Kachin Independence Organisation KIO-ED Kachin Independence Organisation – Education Department KnEDN Karenni Education and Development Network KNPP Karenni National Progressive Party LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii KNU Karen National Union KRCEE Karen Refugee Committee Education Entity KSEAG Karen State Education Assistance Group KTWG Karen Teacher Working Group LC Local Curriculum LCA Literature and Culture Associations LCC Literature