CREATING THE 'PURE' ATHLETE: DISCOURSES ON STEROID USE AND PROHIBITION IN SPORT by Bryan Sluggett B.A., Simon Fraser University, 2004 THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS In the Department of Sociology and Anthropology © Bryan Sluggett 2007 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY 2007 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission ofthe author. Approval Name: Bryan Sluggett Degree: Master of Arts Title of Thesis: Creating the 'Pure' Athlete: Discourses on Steroid Use and Prohibition in Sport Examining Committee: Chair: Dr. Dara Culhane Associate Professor of Anthropology Dr. Ann Travers Senior Supervisor Assistant Professor ofSociology Simon Fraser University Dr. Cindy Patton Supervisor Professor ofSociology/Anthropology & Women's Studies Simon Fraser University Dr. Richard Gruneau External Examiner Professor of Communications Simon Fraser University Date Approved: July 10, 2007 ii SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY IIIIolaratiDn of Partial C.yrIght U.C8 The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. 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Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Revised: Summer 2007 SIMON I~RASER UNIVERSITY THINKING OF THE WORLD STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a) Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, or (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal Care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-investigator, in a research project approved in advance, or (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Office of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Bennett Library Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada Last revision; Summer 2007 ABSTRACT This thesis questions current anti-doping policy in sport because it is unable to account for the integration ofsporting technologies that have rendered the 'pure' body fictional. My research is based on a discourse analysis ofWorld Anti-Doping Agency policies, newspaper articles covering baseball's 'steroid scandal', and interviews with competitive athletes. Discourses about steroids suggest that dangerous health outcomes, coupled with artificial performance boosts, create doped athletes that require surveillance interventions from sporting authorities to protect 'clean sport'. Moral panics are encouraged by media and policy reports through narratives that increasingly depend on a 'war on drugs' logic. Athletes are placed at the center ofthis paradox between the 'win at all cost' approach ofsport and the mantra that only 'clean athletes' count. Consequently, resources are funneled into eliminating doping through antiquated ethics concerned with natural/artificial boundaries; while legal technologies improving performance and causing harm continue unchecked. iii DEDICATION For Jhing iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 am deeply indebted to my incredible committee members for their academic and personal support through this process. My senior supervisor, Ann Travers, is responsible for showing me that the sociology ofsport could be a life long academic project; and for that 1am forever thankful. My second supervisor, Cindy Patton, always had the right question or comment to help me find the right direction. My external examiner for the defense was Richard Gruneau, and 1thank him for the contributions, and considered reading, he gave my thesis. 1also owe a great thank you to the administrative staff in the Sociology and Anthropology department. Hal Weinberg, Director ofEthics at SFU, was very resourceful in helping me navigate the ethics board. The support from many other graduate students - experiencing the same lifestyle ofsleeplessness - was an invaluable resource. While it was frustrating to fight through the isolation that characterizes graduate work, their friendship kept my spirits high. My wife Jhing, family and friends bore the brunt ofmy stress, and learned graciously to accept my 'availability' (i.e. "I can't go out right now...").1 appreciate their unconditional support, and feel happy knowing they will always be there. 1 also wish to thank the athletes who agreed to talk with me about their sport training experiences. Their contribution was truly appreciated. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Approval ii Abstract iii Dedication iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vi Chapter 1: Creating the 'Pure' Athlete: Discourses on Steroid Use and Prohibition in Sport 1 Introduction 1 Literature Review 3 Research Questions 15 Theoretical Framework 15 Research Design 20 Methodology 20 Data Sources, Sampling and Collection 22 Data Analysis 24 Navigating the Ethics Board and Ethical Issues 25 Chapter 2: WADA Anti-Doping Policy and Education 29 Introduction 29 The Drug Testing Shift 30 What Counts as Doping? 35 The Clean Athlete: Purity With "Virtuous Perfection" 39 Steroid Infused: Cold War Sport and Suspect Dopers .42 Clean Athletes Have Nothing to Hide 57 Is Testing the Only Option? 68 Chapter 3: Race in the Home Run Chase: Clean and Doped Athletes in the 'Steroid Era' 70 Introduction 70 Modem Racism and the 'Crisis ofWhiteness' 73 Racializng Sporting Authenticity 77 Creating Steroid Infused and Natural Bodies 86 Deploying the 'Race Card' to Save Purity 91 Coverging Discourses 99 Chapter 4: Peformance Enhancement in the Age of Moral Panic 102 Introduction 102 vi Talking with Athletes: What Counts As True Performance? 103 Who Are My Participants? 104 Is Sport Healthy? 106 Cyborg Athlets? 108 Protecting Natural Athletes? 113 Media and Policy Convergence 120 BALCO: "But with time serious reform may come" 122 From 'Death in the Locker Room' to Suicide: "Steroids Killed My Son" 128 The 'Side Effects' ofAnti-Doping Campaigns 133 Appendix: Research Questions 136 References 137 vii Chapter 1: Creating the 'Pure' Athlete: Discourses on Steroid Use and Prohibition in Sport Introduction The 1976 Olympics in Montreal ushered in the modem era ofdrug bans in athletics: it was the first Olympic competition to prohibit steroids, largely in response to escalating accusations that many athletes - and in particular eastern bloc athletes - were gaining advantages through steroid use (Beamish and Ritchie, 2005a). Despite the inception ofdrug testing in the Olympics - and its subsequent trickle down to professional, collegiate and amateur ranks - steroid use by athletes persists, and sporting authorities continue their pursuit of 'fair play'. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), International Olympic Committee (lOC), National Anti-Doping Committees (NADO), and Professional/Collegiate institutions are now each working fervently to 'get tough' on doping. The eradication ofperformance enhancing drugs in sport has been reduced to one policy: drug testing. Although this involves a host ofspecific decisions ­ anti-doping rules, prohibited lists, therapeutic use exemptions, drug testing methods, standards ofproof, punishments - all drug bans have the same quest: to demand inspecting an athletes' fluids for purity. In this context, the athlete must be gazed - not only in drug testing - but also through speculation when something appears 'unnatural' in their appearance