TRADITIONAL RELIGION OF THE LOTHA NAGAS AND THE IMPACT OF CHRISTIANITY. A Thesis Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY MHABENI EZUNG Department of History & Archaeology School of Social Sciences TO Nagaland University Kohima Campus: Meriema Headquarter: Lumami November 2014 Department of History and Archaeology Certificate Certified that the subject matter of this thesis is the record of work down by Ms. Mhabeni Ezung and the contents of this thesis did not form a basis of the award of any previous degree to her, or, to the best of my knowledge, to anyone else, and that the thesis had not been submitted by her for any research degree in any other university. In habit and character, Ms. Mhabeni Ezung is a fit and proper person for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Kohima The…..Nov. 2014 Dr. Y. BEN LOTHA Supervisor Department of History & Archaeology NU Kohima Campus Meriema Declaration I, Mhabeni Ezung, do hereby declare that the thesis entitled “Traditional Religion of the Lotha Nagas and the Impact of Christianity” submitted for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History is my original work and that it has not previously formed the basis for the award of any degree on the same title Kohima: (Mhabeni Ezung) Date: Research Scholar Department of History & Archaeology Nagaland University Kohima. Countersigned Dr. Ketholesie Zetsuvi Dr.Y.Ben Lotha Head Supervisor Department of History & Archaeology Associate Professor Nagaland University Department of History & Archaeology Kohima Nagaland University Kohima ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the help of many, whose timely contributions, guidance and support I would like to acknowledge. My sincere gratitude to Dr. Y. Ben Lotha, my supervisor, for his untiring efforts to help me and for the constant encouragement. I am indebted to him for the valuable guidance and comments for the improvement of my thesis without which it would not have been possible to accomplish my research work. My thanks are also due to the Head and all the faculty members of History Department, Nagaland University for their good wishes and necessary assistance. In the process of my research work I have liberally drawn materials from various Libraries. I acknowledge my gratitude to the authority of Nagaland University Library, Kohima; North Eastern Hill University Library, Shillong; State Library, Kohima; Shalom Bible Seminary, Sechu; Vankhosung Mission Centre, Wokha; Mission Centre, Impur; SCERT, Kohima; Directorate of Art & Culture Nagaland, Kohima; British Council, Kolkata and Baptist College, Kohima, for allowing me to have access into their respective Libraries. I express my thanks to my principal, Mr. Delhu Khate, Baptist College for the concern and understanding, and help given to me by way of releasing me from my duties in the college to facilitate the progress of my research. I express my gratitude to all my colleagues at Baptist College for their constant support. I also acknowledge my gratitude to my husband Mr. Mhabemo Odyuo and my children Nzanthung and Elizabeth for understanding and supporting me throughout the busy days of my research work. I am indebted to Mr. Achumthung Patton for typesetting my thesis promptly. Last but not the least, my gratitude to all those people I interviewed whose names I possibly cannot mention here for want of space but from whose storehouse of knowledge I learnt and gained so much. Date: Ms.Mhabeni Ezung Plate-1: Menkitong (Head Tree of the Village) on which Heads of enemies were hung during Headhunting Days. Pyotchu Village, Lower Range, Wokha. Longsa Village, Upper Range, Wokha. Plate-2: Ozu (Monoliths) erected by the Ekhyo Ekhung( rich men) after performing the Osho (Feast of Merit) Pyotchu Village, Lower Range, Wokha. Yikhum Village, Wokha. Plate-3: Oha (Luck Stones) belived by the Lothas to bring fortune to the Village and were kept at the foot of the posts of Chumpo (Bachelor’s Dormitory), under the Menkitong (Head Tree) or by individuals in their houses or granaries. Kept by Thungdamo Ezung, Animist, Longsa Village, Wokha. Plate-4: Epitaph of Lt. Shanjamo Jungi, a pioneer Christian Missionary among the Lothas. Yikhum Village, Wokha. Plate-5: Lotha Traditional Shawls. Phanrupsu: Worn by a man who had done Longpensu: Worn by a man who had performed the Shishang ceremony, the first social genna. the Ozu esu (Stone dragging ceremony). Opvurum: Worn by the wife of a man who had performed the Etha (Mending) Ceremony. Plate-6: The Lothas Celebrating Tokhu Emong (Post Harvest Festival) with songs, dances & merry making. Wokha Town CONTENTS Supervisor’s Certificate Candidate’s Declaration Acknowledgments Map Plates Page No. Chapter 1: Introduction 1-19 Chapter 2: Traditional Religion and Cosmology 20-85 Chapter 3: Introduction of Christianity 86-124 Chapter 4: Modern Education and Its Impact 125-175 Chapter 5: Impact of Christianity 176-206 Chapter 6: Conclusion 207-223 Bibliography 224-240 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION LAND AND PEOPLE Nagaland, a part of Assam and North East Frontier Agency (NEFA) in 1947, became the 16th state of India in 1963. Statehood came as a result of political agreement. In this respect Nagaland‟s case is unique and special constitutional protection was also provided under Article 371(A) of the Indian constitution to safeguard the culture, traditions and way of life of the Nagas. One of the smaller hill tribes of India, Nagaland is known for its myriad tribes with their rich culture and tradition. (Nagaland State Human Development Report 2004:14). Each tribe is distinct and unique in character from the others in terms of customs, language and attire. By whatever name people have called this realm, hidden among the mountains of India‟s Northeast, Nagaland has always evoked a sense of mysticism and awe, intensified by the remoteness of its geographical location. (Directorate of Tourism, 2012:1).One of the seven sisters of the Northeast, the state is situated between the valley of the Brahmaputra river and neighboring Burma (Myanmar). The eastern boundary is marked by the Patkai range; to the west the terrain flattens out into the plains of Assam. To the North lies Tirap, a district of Arunachal Pradesh and Nowgong and Sibsagar of Assam, to the south Manipur. These boundaries enclosed an area of 16,527sq km, most of which are hills and mountains. (Ganguli, 1984:266). It lies between 25˚6‟ and 27˚4‟ Latitude North of Equator and between the Longitudinal lines 93˚20‟ and 95˚15‟E. (Statistical Handbook 2013: 2) 1 The population of Nagaland, according to the 2011 Census is 19, 78,502. Out of this, 71.14% of the population lives in rural areas. As recorded in the statistical handbook published by the Nagaland Directorate of Economics and statistics 2013, the density of the population is 119 per sq. km. 974122 are workers and 1004380 are non- workers. 79.55% of the population is literate. The topography of Nagaland is nearly all hilly, the highest peak being Saramati (3841 metres) in the district of Kiphire that borders Myanmar. Many rivers cut through this mountainous terrain. The main ones are Dhansiri, Doyang, Dikhu, Milak, Tizu and Zunki. A population of only about 1.9 million, the number may sound meager when compared with the vast population of the Indian peninsula; but these few people are composed of 16 major tribes along with other sub tribes, each representing a different culture and preserving unique customs, language and dress. It has a rich oral tradition which has been handed down the generations. These colorful people span across 11 administrative districts, Kohima being the capital. The multiplicity of the tribe, within such a limited space, could be due to the fact that the Naga ancestors migrated to the present location in different groups and they remained confined to their ridges and mountainous terrain. This subsequently resulted in their unique characteristic of appearing to be both one people and many tribe, displaying both unity and diversity in their customs, traditions, attire and political systems. (State human development report 2004:19) The focus of the present study is the Lothas, one of the sixteen major tribes of Nagaland who inhabit the District of Wokha. The district is Situated on the mid – west of the State of Nagaland and is intercepted at the heart by latitude 26 degree 8‟ N and longitude 94 degrees 18‟ E. (Ghosh, 1979:1). With a geographical area of 1628 sq km, it is the third smallest district in terms of area of the state. It is situated in the mid western part of Nagaland, 2 adjacent to Sibsagar plains of Assam state. It is bounded by Mokokchung district in the North, Kohima district in the South, Zunheboto district in the East, and the state of Assam in the west. The Wokha District is situated at a latitude of 26˚8‟ North and a Longitude of 94˚18‟ East. (Wokha District Planning & Development Board). According to the basic table presenting the provisional census of 2011 published by the directorate of economics and statistics, the population of the district is 166,343 persons. The literacy rate is 87.69 percent. The density of the population is 102 persons per sq. Km. The topography of the district is more or less similar with that of the other districts in the state, having hill ranges and ridges directed by the seasonal streams. The district is dominated by three ranges namely, Bhandari Range, also called Lower Range or outer Ranges with Baghty, Changpang and Ralan cirles, Sanis Range, also called middle range, with Sungro, Aitepyong, Sanis and Lotsu circles, and Wokha range which falls in the upper area of the district with Chukitong, Englan and Phiro circles.